Islam Guide – Islamic Law and Theology

Islam is all about the “belief,” which starts with the unconditional belief that the whole universe was created by “One Supreme Being.” You may call that “Supreme Being,” God, Lord, or Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, which expression is used by Muslims.

Believing that this Universe, what we know and can see and what is beyond our comprehension, was created by One Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, is the base of Islam. Oneness of the Creator of this Universe is not something newly introduced by Islam; it has been the fundamental preaching of all the previous religions, brought to mankind by the Prophets and Messengers of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

So, the Theology of Islam is predominantly based on monotheism. The next element of Islamic theology is accepting, acknowledging, and standing witness that Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ is the Prophet and Messenger of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى that he is last Prophet sent to this world. As such, the theology of Islam in entirely the “faith”; faith on Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى and faith on the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ.

The Islamic faith, or Islamic Theology, is based on its five elements, more commonly referred to as “five pillars of Islam”. On the other hand, the teachings and norms of Islam are primarily based on the Divine revelations sent upon the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, which forms the prime guidelines for an Islamic way of life. These Divine revelations are compiled in the Holy Book, “the Quran”.  While the Quran provides the basic guidelines, its practical display is the “Sunnah” of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. Sunnah, in Islamic theology is the way Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ lived his life. All the words spoken by him and all the verdicts given by him on different matters are included in his Sunnah, which every Muslim likes to follow.

While the theology of Islam is predominantly based on the firm and unconditional belief in the Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, the Islamic Law is mainly derived from the Quran and Sunnah. The basic condition of being a Muslim is the complete submission to Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى by the believers. It means that the norms and parameters of living an Islamic way of life must be by the Will and Command of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. This belief provides the guidance to formulate the Law. No law can be referred to as Islamic Law (Sharia), unless it strictly follows the parameters, as defined in the Quran and Hadith as well as practically demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ.

Hence, Islamic Law has to be based on the fundamental teachings of Islam, as mentioned in the Quran and Hadith. Side by side, there is always room for adjustment of these Laws per the present day’s circumstances, referred to as “Ijtihad” (Improvisation, based on current circumstances). Simultaneously, some Islamic scholars also believe in the concept of “Ijma-e-Ummat” (Consensus of the People).

Based on the explanation and interpretations of various guidelines, there are mainly two different schools of thought, also called “Fiqh” (Islamic Jurisprudence) in the Islamic world: Sunni and Shia. The Sunni school of thought is further bifurcated into four main segments: Hanafi, Humbli, Maliki, and Shafi. Similarly, the Shia school of thought is divided into three main segments: the Twelvers, Zaiydis, and Isma’ilis.

Sharia (Islamic Law)

Islamic Law is known as Sharia (شريعة) in the Muslim world. Sharia is an Arabic word that means “the path” or, more elaboratively, from the Islamic perspective, “the path to water.” Sometimes, it is also written as “Shariah” or “Shari’a.”

The Islamic Law (Sharia) is the Divine law outlined in the Quran and explained by the Hadiths. Based on the Divine revelation, it is considered the Supreme law in Muslim Communities worldwide. Any further legislation has to be within the framework of this law. Any alteration, deletion, or addition in this Divine Law would render the legislation non-Islamic.

Permissible Sources of Sharia By The Religious Perceptive

The main source of Sharia is the Quran. Hadith and Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ provides an explanation on how it can be implemented in the practical life, in a Muslim society. The 114^th Verse of Surah Al-Ana’am mentions the Quran as the basic guidance:

Translation

Shall I look upon anyone apart from Allah for judgment when it is He Who has revealed to you the Book in detail? And those whom We gave the Book (before you) know that this (Book) has been revealed in truth by your Lord. Do not, then, be among the doubters

The same subject is narrated in a different context, more precisely, in verse 49 of the Surah Al-Ma’ida:

Translation

Therefore, judge between them (O Muhammad!) by what Allah has revealed and do not follow their desires, and beware lest they tempt you away from anything of what Allah has revealed to you. And if they turn away, then know well that Allah has indeed decided to afflict them for some of their sins. For surely many of them are transgressors.

Hence, the Quran is the base of Islamic rules and regulations.

Similarly, the 45^th verse of Surah Al-Ma’ida provides guidelines on one of the most important subjects: revenge. A clear and straightforward parameter has been set in this verse for any such eventuality. But side by side, it is also mentioned that the act of foregoing the revenge (the concept of “Qisas”) is liked by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

Translation

And therein We had ordained for them: ‘A life for a life, and an eye for an eye, and a nose for a nose, and an ear for an ear, and a tooth for a tooth, and for all wounds, like for like. But whosoever forgoes it by way of charity, it will be for him an expiation. Those who do not judge by what Allah has revealed are indeed the wrong-doers

These are just a few examples of how the Quran provides guidance on important aspects of life. In some cases, the Quran gives a hint about a certain issue but not the details. Here comes the role of other permissible sources of formulating the Islamic Laws, such as Ijma (إجماع), Ijtihad (اجتهاد) and Qiyas (قياس)

· Ijma

Ijma has two forms. The first one is “Ijma al-Ummat, Arabic إجماع الأمة,” or the Consensus of the entire Islamic Community. Then there is another level of Ijma, “Ijma al-Aimmah “إجماع الائـمـة” which means a greater consensus on a certain religious issue between the scholars of Islam. Verse 59 of Surah An-Nisa provides the guidelines on this important matter:

Translation

Believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger, and those from among you who are invested with authority; and then if you were to dispute among yourselves about anything refer it to Allah and the Messenger if you indeed believe in Allah and the Last Day; that is better and more commendable in the end.

· Ijtihad

Ijtihad is also an Arabic word, which can be translated as “Physical and mental Effort” to resolve an issue related to Islamic law. It is a thought process used to solve a particular problem, using the methodology derived from the basic Religious Scripture, the Quran, and Hadith. Using this method, Islamic Scholars can provide a reasonable solution to any unprecedented issue while strictly remaining within the overall framework of the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah/Hadiths.

· Qiyas

Qiyas is yet another Arabic word that can be translated as Analogical Reasoning. Here, the teachings of the Quran and Hadith are contrasted and compared for their application under the new circumstances. The references from the Quran and Hadith are used to provide a practical solution to a problem that is new in its nature. This process is used in cases where the latest problem and the set precedent have the same operative causes, such as the prohibition of the sale and purchase of goods at the time of Friday (Jumma) Prayers, as narrated in the 9^th verse of Surah Al-Jumu’aa.

Translation

Believers, when the call for Prayer is made on Friday, hasten to the remembrance of Allah and give up all trading. That is better for you, if you only knew.

Now, using Analogical Reasoning, Scholars have extended this prohibition to the extent of other such activities such as Office Work, Agriculture, and other administrative tasks. That means all types of activities have been prohibited in Muslim society once the last call for Friday Prayers has been called till the end of the special Friday Prayers.

So, the Quran has set the parameters on how to make Islamic Laws. However, it should also be remembered that the authority to formulate any law rests unconditionally with the State and not the individual persons.

The Role of Scholars and Jurists (Ulama)

Religious Scholars and Jurists are called “Ulama” in the Islamic world. Ulama (علماء) is an Arabic word, specifically used for the Islamic Scholars. It is the plural form of the Alim (عالِم). A female Islamic scholar is called “Alima.” Ulama are specially educated persons having extensive knowledge of various Islamic subjects. As such, they are responsible for the transmission and interpretation of Islamic knowledge. In this capacity, they are also the guardians of the Islamic norms and practices, strictly under the parameters as outlined in the Quran and Hadith/Sunnah.

Ulama gets religious education and knowledge, traditionally by joining any of the renowned religious educational institutes, commonly known as “madrassa.” In the early days of Islamic education systems, a person intending to become an Alim used to get himself associated with some reputed Scholar; the concept of madrassas came a bit later.

As a common practice, Ulama is specifically educated in different fields of Islamic education, the Quran and Hadith/Sunnah being the basic source of knowledge. Going forward, they are also taught the other necessary subjects, like Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) and Sharia (Islamic Law). However, there are some minor deviations in the madrassas of the Shia school of thought as compared to the ones run by Sunnis.

One of the basic differences between them is the interpretation of the Quran and Hadith. Per the Shia school of thought, this authority is restricted to the Imams (the concept of twelve Imams). Contrary to that, the Sunni School of thought is of the opinion that the message of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى has been explicitly narrated in the Quran and Hadith, the interpretation of which is now the responsibility of the Ulama. Then, there are certain minor differences between the four sects of Sunnis: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali.

· Role of Ulama in Islamic Law

Ulama are the interpreters, transmitters, and custodians of Islamic knowledge, especially in the field of formation and consistency of the Sharia. In this capacity, Ulama needs to be highly educated in all the subjects of Islamic knowledge. Therefore, it was felt necessary to establish the Islamic Educational System, in the earlier days of Islamic expansions.

During the era of different Caliphates, such as Abbasids and Ottomans, various madrassas were established under the patronage of the Caliphs. The first renowned Sunni madrassa was established in the early 11^th Century CE, known as Madrassa Nizamiyya. Then, the Abbasid Caliph Mustansir established Madrassa Mustansariya in Baghdad in the 13 Century CE. Similarly, the Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent also established a madrassa.

The Caliphates were quite interested in promoting Islamic education, which reflects their association with the Ulama. The reason behind this association might be their need for political support of the religious elite. However, it did play a significant role in the formation, strengthening, preservation, and promotion of Islamic law (Sharia) in Muslim societies. The role of Ulama in this context is un-debatable. There might be differences between various factions, but their contribution towards establishment and consistency in Islamic Law cannot be overlooked.

Ulama was given the key posts in the Caliphates, specifically in the capacity of Jurists. An office of Qadis (the Judges) was established by the Caliphs, where the well-educated Islamic Scholars (Ulama) were appointed. The role of these Qadis in the implementation of the Islamic Law in the Muslim societies has remained pivotal. Side by side, other groups of Ulama were engaged in the research work to interpret the Quran and Hadith to make the Islamic Law pragmatic, under contemporary circumstances, using the option of Ijtihad and Ijma.

In this scenario, the role of Ulama becomes even more important as well as sensitive. They had to follow the straight line of the Quran and Hadith, as well as make the Sharia law practicable without violating or deviating from the basics. Their role in this context had been remarkable, irrespective of what school of thought, they followed. The Main body of the Islamic Law, which is followed by the majority of the Muslim world, these days, is the same as was outlined by the earlier-days Ulama, although it is an ongoing process. Again, in this scenario, the contemporary Ulama are disposing of their responsibilities effectively.

It would not be out of context to mention another class of Ulama, who are relatively less educated than the elite of Islamic Scholars. This category of Ulama has been and is still engaged in the basic education of kids, locally in the mosques and small madrassas, especially in the Indian Sub-continent. They have played a critical role in keeping the spirit of Islamic knowledge alive at the grassroots level. Though they practically have no significant role to play in the formation of Islamic Laws, they are quite effective in the implementation of Islamic norms and practices at the local level through educating the people.

Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh)

The Jurisprudence in Islam is referred to as Fiqh (فقه). It is the interpretation of the Islamic Law (Sharia), based on its prime sources, the Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ and the practices of his companions (Sahaba). Only a person having a deep knowledge of Islamic law and its practical application in a Muslim community is competent to interpret these laws by giving rulings (fatwa). In the Islamic jurisprudence system, such a person is called Faqih. The role of Faqih in Islamic Jurisprudence is pivotal, as he has to give rulings on any issues referred to him for a religious interpretation.

So, the Sharia and Fiqh go side by side in the practical application of Islamic law. While Islamic Law or Sharia cannot be changed by any means, the Fiqh is flexible under varying circumstances. Since the Sharia is the Divine law, as spelled out in the Quran and explained and practically demonstrated through the Sunnah, it stands immutable. However, the Fiqh is mutable, as it deals with the practical application of Divine Law, as interpreted by the Ulama/Faqih under the prevailing circumstances. Moreover, Fiqh is all about the implementation of religious rituals under the framework of the social, economic, and political system, keeping in view the contemporary circumstances.

Based on the Fiqh, there are four groups in Sunni and two in the Shia school of thought. Sunnis follow either Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, or Hanbali Fiqh, whereas Shias mostly follow the Jafari Fiqh. Apart from Jafari, other groups of Shia Muslims follow Ismaili or Zaydi Fiqh.

In a broader sense, all the Imams of four Sunni Fiqh were connected with each other and eventually with Imam Jafar Al-Sadiq, the sixth Imam of the Twelver Shiaism. Imam Jafar was one of the teachers of Imam Abu Hanifa, the founder of Hanafi Fiqh. Imam Malik Ibn Anas, the founder of Maliki Fiqh, was also one of the students of Imam Jafar Al-Sadiq. Similarly, Imam Malik Ibn Anas was one of the teachers of Imam Shafi’i, the founder of Shafi’i Fiqh and then Imam Shafi’i was among the teachers of Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali Fiqh.

· Hanafi Fiqh

Hanafi Fiqh is the most popular Islamic jurisprudence. It was founded by Imam Abu Hanifa, a renowned scholar, theologian, and jurist of his time, during the 8^th Century CE. It is followed by the vast majority of the Sunnis, estimated to be 30% of the total Sunni population at the moment. The Hanafi Fiqh is sometimes also referred to as the “Fiqh of the Peoples’ personal opinion” (the Fiqh of Ahl-Ar-Ray), contrary to the “Ahl-Al-Hadith” (the people who follow Hadith).

To start with his work on Islamic Jurisprudence, Imam Abu Hanifa first constituted a group of his learned students, the likes of Abu Yousuf and Muhammad Al-Shaibani and some others, being its members. This was a sort of a Judicial Committee. The Imam openly discussed the matters related to Islamic Jurisprudence with the members of this committee. He would not impose his own opinion and rulings in any matter; rather he would listen to the opinions of his students as well. It used to be an extensive thought process, which usually take more than a month, to reach a final verdict. Once done, Abu Yousaf was responsible for formulating its principles and recording them.

Following this process, Imam Abu Hanifa would take up the questions one by one and get the rulings recorded in the form of Chapters and Books, such as the Book of Tahara (Purification), Book of Salah (Prayers), and so on.

The Abbasid Caliphate patronized him and resultantly, the Hanafi Fiqh expanded across Iraq and eventually in other parts of the Muslim world. It swiftly spread in Islamic Spain, Iran, and Khorasan. Later on, the Hanafi Fiqh was widely adopted by other parts of the Islamic world, such as Turkey and the Indian Sub-Continent, through the patronization of Ottoman and Mughal Empires. At present Hanafi Jurisprudence is vastly followed in Turkey, Egypt, Central and South Asia, Balkans, and even in China and Russia.

· What Inspired Imam Abu Hanifa?

The main inspiration, that instigated Imam Abu Hanifa to formulate and compile the Islamic Jurisprudence, was the fact that by that time, none of such work was done. Till his time, the jurisprudence was largely based on the traditions of the Sahaba (companions of the Prophet) and their successors. The problem was that there was no organized record of these traditions compiled by anyone. Imam Abu Hanifa was of the opinion that under these circumstances, the next generations would not get the true sense of Islamic Law and Jurisprudence. Therefore, he thought it necessary to compile the principles of Islamic Jurisprudence in different matters.

Hence, he launched this huge task, which instantly got the attention of the vast majority of the Muslim world. The support of different Caliphates and Islamic Empires also played a role in the worldwide expansion of this Fiqh.

· Maliki Fiqh

Imam Malik Ibn Anas was the founder of one of the four major Sunni Fiqh, commonly known as Maliki Fiqh. It was established in the late 8^th Century CE. Like all other Sunni Schools of thought, Maliki Fiqh primarily follows the Quran and Sunnah as the main sources of Islamic Law. However, a major difference in Maliki jurisprudence is their acceptance of the consensus of the people of Medina as one of the sources of deriving Islamic law.

Maliki School of thought is the second largest Islamic jurisprudence after the Hanafi Fiqh. The order of preferences of Maliki Fiqh, while finding a solution to any religious issue, was the Quran and Hadiths. The third preference was the traditions and practices of the people of Medina, referred to as “Amal.” The next in their order of preference was the consensus of the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, followed by the individual opinions of the Companions of the Prophet, then analogy and last being the traditions of the people across the Islamic Communities. Imam Malik compiled his work in the form of a Book known as Muwatta Imam Malik, more commonly referred to as “Muwatta.” In his Muwatta, Imam Malik mostly included the Sahih (authentic) Hadiths, along with his commentary, which is believed to be extremely relevant.

Apart from the Muwatta Imam Malik, the Maliki Fiqh’s second most reliable compilation is known as Al-Mudawwana, which is a collective work with his students, Ibn Qasim and Sahnun. It is a compilation of the learning sessions of Ibn Qasim with his teacher, Imam Malik, based on the questions asked by Sahnun. It also contains the reasonings of Ibn Qasim in different matters, where the remarks of his teacher, Imam Malik, were not available.

Overall, Maliki Fiqh is very close to the Hanafi jurisprudence. The main difference between them is that Hanafi Fiqh relies on analogy as well, whereas the Maliki Fiqh does not give weightage to it; instead, they rely mainly on the “Istislah,” the Public Interest when sufficient details are not available in the Quran and Hadiths.

The Maliki jurisprudence largely exists in North and West Africa, Sudan, Chad, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Dubai, UAE. It is also found in some parts of Saudi Arabia. During the prime era of Islam, Maliki jurisprudence was also followed in Islamic Spain and Sicily.

· Shafi’i Fiqh

Shafi’i Fiqh is the third most popular Fiqh across the Muslim World. It was established in the early ninth century CE by Imam Al-Shafi’i, who was a renowned traditionalist, theologian, scholar, and jurist. Like other Sunni schools of thought, Shafi’i Fiqh also maintains that the Quran and Hadith are the prime sources of Islamic Law. After the Quran and Hadith, they use the option of Qiyas and Ijma. However, the Shafi’i school does not accept the local traditions as the source of Islamic law. Similarly, they are also against the use of Personal Opinions of People (Ahl-ar Raye).

The order of priority in Shafi’i Fiqh is the Quran, Hadith, Qiyas, and Ijma.

· Similarities Between Shafi’i and Shia

Although Shafi’i Fiqh primarily belongs to the Sunni School of thought, it is much closer to Shiaism in various theological and jurisprudential matters. They give priority to the family of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ (Ahl-e-Bayt) give emphasis on their infallibility, just like the Shias. Similarly, like the Shias, they also consider reciting “Assalat o khair un min al nawm” (Prayer is better than sleeping) in the morning Call to Prayer as heresy. Similarities exist between the Shia and Shafi’i Fiqh in some other matters as well.

On the other hand, the Shafi’i jurisprudence differs from Malikis in the acceptance of local traditions as a source of law-making. The Shafi’i school is of the view that the local traditions may not necessarily reflect the Sunnah of the Prophet and, hence, should not be considered a reliable source of jurisprudence. Likewise, they also differ from the Hanafis on the issue of accepting the Personal Opinion of the People (Ahl ar-Raye) as the permissible source of formulating Islamic Jurisprudence.

The Shafi’i Fiqh was initially much popular in the Middle East region but later on, with the rise of Ottoman and Safavids, their influence started vanishing. Soon, this Fiqh was replaced by the Hanafi due to the influence of Ottomans and Safavids. At present, this Fiqh is followed in some parts of Saudi Arabia along the West Coastal region. It is also followed in parts of Egypt and Yemen, South and Southeast Asia, and the North Caucasian region.

· Hanbali Fiqh

Hanbali Fiqh is the smallest group among the four major factions of the Sunni School of thought. It was also established in the ninth Century CE. Its founder was Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, who was a famous Scholar, Jurist, traditionalist, and theologist of the late eighth and early nineth Century CE. The Hanbali school is the most firm follower of the Traditionalist School of Theology.

Like all other Fiqh, the Quran and Hadith are considered the main sources of deriving Islamic Law, followed by the practices of the Sahaba (Companions of the Prophet). However, contrary to the Hanafi and Maliki Schools, they do not accept Juristic Discretion and Traditions of the Communities as the valid source of Islamic Law.

The Hanbali Fiqh is largely followed in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. It is also the most popular Fiqh in Sharjah, Ajman, Ra’s al Khaimah, and Ummul Quwain in UAE. Its followers also exist in Syria, Yemen, Bahrain and Oman.

Though debatable, some scholars are of the view that Wahhabism (the official faith of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) is the product of the Hanbali School.

The Ja’fari School of Shia Islam

Shia Islam is one of the two main branches of Islam, having a followership of around 10-15% of the total Muslim population across the world. It has its existence in almost every part of the Muslim world, with Iran, Azerbaijan, Iraq, and Bahrain being the majority Shia population Countries. Apart from that, there is quite a considerable population in the Indian Sub-Continent, Turkey, Yemen, Lebanon, and Kuwait, following Shia Islam.

Within Shia Islam, the major sect, having around 80-85% followers, is referred to as Twelver Shia (who follow the concept of Imamate). The sixth of the twelve Imams was Imam Jafar As-Sadiq, who is the founder of the Ja’fri School of thought. Imam Jafar As-Sadiq belongs to the Ahl al-Bayt (the family of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ). He was one of the most learned persons, having complete knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah. The founders of all four major Sunni Schools, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali, were directly or indirectly his students. Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik Ibn Anas were both directly his students.

· Ja’fri Fiqh (الفقه الجعفري)

Imam Jafar As-Sadiq is the founder of the Ja’fri School of Jurisprudence, which was established in the 8^th Century CE. The Ja’fri Fiqh is followed by the Twelver Shias. In 1959, the renowned Jamia Al-Azhar (Azhar University, Egypt) recognized the Ja’fri Jurisprudence as the fifth school of jurisprudence, with the four Sunni Schools.

Ja’fri Fiqh is part of the Constitution of Islamic Iran, which forms the basis of religious practices, governance, and legislation.

· Differences With Sunni Schools

The main variations in the Ja’fri School, as compared with the Sunni Schools, are in different subjects, such as Ijtihad, law of Inheritance, temporary marriage (Mut’a), religious taxes, and matters related to commerce.

Some of the contemporary Shia Scholars reject the concept of predestination. They put more emphasis on the concept of Bada’. Under the concept of Bada’, it is believed that the destiny of humans is not pre-determined by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى; instead, He has the Will and Command to change the course of the destination. However, some of the scholars are of the view that Bada’ is not about rejecting the pre-destination as such it remains an academic debate.

Taqiyah is yet another concept, where it is believed that a person can hide his religion if he is at risk of being persecuted. He is also allowed to do so under compulsion.

Theology And Philosophy

Islamic theology is primarily based on the concepts of Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, Prophethood of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ and life after death. The Meccans at that time did not believe in monotheism as well as the concept of resurrection. Similarly, they were not willing to accept the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. Hence, it was imperative to send a clear message to them, which was done through the Divine revelations in the shape of Quranic verses.

Core Theological Beliefs (Tawhid, Prophethood, Afterlife)

· Tawhid – Oneness of Allah

Tawhid (تَوْحِيد) is an Arabic expression for the Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ. The first and foremost belief in Islamic theology is to admit that there is only One Allah سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ, Who is the Creator of this entire Universe. Being the core theological belief in Islam, Tawhid is repeatedly emphasized in the Quran, such as the 102^nd verse of Surah Al-An’am:

Translation

Such is Allah, your Lord. There is no god but He – the Creator of all things. Serve Him alone – for it is He Who is the guardian of everything.

The concept of monotheism has been the basic teaching of the previous Prophets as well, as mentioned in the 23^rd verse of Surah Al-Mu’minun:

Translation

We sent Noah to his people, and he said: “My people! Serve Allah; you have no deity other than He. Do you have no fear?”

Hence, the first condition of being a Muslim is the firm and unshaken belief in the Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

· Prophethood

The next fundamental belief in Islamic theology is the belief in the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. Going further, the believers are also required to have unconditional faith in the finality of the Prophethood, with Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ being the “Seal of the Prophets.”

In a broader sense, belief in Prophethood, being the fundamental article of faith in Islam, also includes the belief in the previously sent Prophets. The 285^th verse of Surah Al-Baqarah narrates this in detail:

Translation

The Messenger has believed in the Guidance which has been sent down to him from his Lord, and those who believe in the Messenger have also sincerely accepted the same. They all believe in Allah, His Angels, His Books, and Messengers. And they say, “We do not discriminate against any of His Messengers. We have heard the Message and submitted to it. Our Lord, we look up to You for forgiveness, for to You we shall all return.

· Afterlife

The concept of life after death is one of the main articles of faith in Islamic theology. There was a common misperception among the Arabs that life ends with the death of a person. The idea behind this misconception was the denial of good and evil. It was believed by them that whatever they did in this world would end with their death. Hence, there would be no benefits of doing good and no punishment for doing evil.

Islam emphasized that there is a life after death. The phase of life in this world would end with the death and the real life would start after that. Islam also introduced the concept of resurrection on the day of Judgment. It would be the day when everyone will be resurrected and will be held accountable for every deed done in this world, either good or evil. Those having more evildoings will be sent to Hell and those having more good deeds will be sent to paradise.

Being one of the core beliefs, life hereafter has been mentioned in the Quran in several verses, such as the 64^th verse of Surah Al-Ankabut:

Translation

The present life is nothing but sport and amusement. The true life is in the Abode of the Hereafter; if only they knew.

Similarly, the concept of good and evil and its consequences in the life hereafter is mentioned in verses 6-8 of Surah Az-Zalzala:

Translation

6. On that Day people will go forth in varying states so that they be shown their deeds
7. So, whoever does an atom’s weight of good shall see it
8. and whoever does an atom’s weight of evil shall see it

Islamic Philosophy And Mysticism (Sufism)

By the dictionary, Philosophy is the study of basic subjects such as knowledge, existence, reasoning, and language. Academic sciences like Psychology and Physics are considered part of Philosophy in general. While remaining within the basics of Philosophy, Islamic Philosophy is based on Islam’s traditions.

In Islamic Philosophy, generally, we come across two subjects, “Falsafa” and “Kalam”. Falsafa deals with the most common subjects of Philosophy, such as Physics, Logic, and Mathematics. Kalam is translated as speech. The expression “Kalam” is used as a nationalization of the Scholarly side of Islamic Philosophy, as practiced within different schools of thought in Islam. “Sufism” is a form of Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism.

· Sufism

Sufism is the term derived from the Arabic words “Al-Sufiyya (الصوفية‎) and “Al-Tasawwuf” (التصوف). Sufism is an Islamic practice that focuses on internal purification and asceticism while maintaining Islamic rituals and spirituality.

A person who practices Sufism is called “Sufi” (صُوفِيّ). Sufi is an Arabic word that is translated as “a person wearing wool.” Traditionally, the Sufis in the earlier days of Islam were known for their woolen outfits. That seems to be the reason behind this version. Another interpretation of the expression “Sufi” is derived from the word “safa” (صفاء), which means “Purity”. It is the basis of another practice in Sufism, “tazkiya” (Self-purification). So, in Sufism, a Sufi would essentially go through the process of self-purification, which is the first stage of achievement toward complete Sufism. The ultimate goal, or in other words, complete Sufism, is to get closeness to Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى through seeking His pleasure.

While the origin of Sufism can be traced back to the early days of Islam, even during the life of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, it mainly initiated in the Umayyad Caliphate, as a responsive phenomenon against their deviation from the basic teachings of Islam and apparent tilt towards the worldliness. Sufism, in its original form, remained strictly in line with Islamic laws, predominantly following Sunni Islam. However, after the historic Conversion in Iran during the era of Safavids, Sufi traits also penetrated Shia Islam, especially by way of the concept of “Irfan” (knowledge, wisdom, and awareness).

· Basics of Sufism

An important practice of Sufism is known as “Dhikar” (ذِكْر), which specifically means remembering Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. A Sufi would spend most of his time reciting the name of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, which is believed to be the source of getting closer to Him.

Tazkiya, self-purification is also one of the basic requirements of Sufism. This critical stage is achieved through the spiritual guidance of a “Wali” (وَلِيّ), which can be translated as “friend of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, in the Islamic mysticism.  A Wali would essentially belong to a chain of Suifs or religious teachers. All such chains of religious teachers or Sufis would ultimately reach back to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ.

Bay’ah (بَيْعَة) is the essential part of the Sufism. It is sort of pledging allegiance. The first such allegiance was pledged to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ by his Companions (Sahaba), Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ being the most prominent among them. This pledge of allegiance is also mentioned in the Quran, expressing its importance in the 48^th verse of Surah Al-Fath:

Translation

Those who swore fealty to you, (O Prophet), in fact, swore fealty to Allah. The Hand of Allah is above their hands. So whoever breaks his covenant breaks it to his own hurt; and whoever fulfills the covenant that he made with Allah, He will bestow on him a great reward.

The same practice is adopted in Sufism. Anyone entering the ambit of Sufism needs to pledge his allegiance to any of the genuine Sufi, commonly referred to as “Sheikh” (شَيْخ), which means the elder, typically used in Islamic theology for a religious scholar.

Sufism comprises various sub-groups known as “Tariqa” (طريقة). It is an Arabic expression translated as “Order” of Sufism. Every Order or Tariqa of Islamic mysticism has its own set of spiritual and ritual practices aimed at achieving the ultimate goal of complete Sufism.

· Renowned Sufis

There is a long list of prominent and renowned personalities, historically identified as the Sufis of Islamic mysticism. Some of them are:

• Abu Zar Ghaffari
• Hassan Al-Basari
• Abdul Qadir Gillani
• Abu Hashim Al-Kufi
• Al-Ghazali
• Junaid Al-Baghdadi
• Dawud Tai
• Bayazid Bistami
• Syed Ali Hajwairi
• Khawaja Muinuddin Chishti
• Baba Farid Gunjshakar
• Mullah Mohammad Mahdi
• Ibrahim Ibn Adham
• Lal Shahbaz Qalandar
• Syed Ali Hamadaani
• Nizamuddin Auliya
• Mahmet Ustaosmanoglu (Mehmut Effendi)
• Jalaluddin Muhammad Rumi
• Sultan Bahu
• Ibn Arabi
• Yahya Ibn Mu’adh Al-Razi
• Younas Emre

· Renowned Orders of Sufism

Most of the Sufi Orders are traced back to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ through Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, with the exception of Naqshbandi order, which is believed to have its roots through Abu Bakar رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ.

Some of the renowned Sufi Orders are listed here:

• Ba’ Alawiyya
• Burhaniyya
• Naqshbandi
• Qadiriyya
• Owaisia
• Suhrawardiyya
• Qalandariyya
• Chishtia
• Rehmaniyya
• Muridiyya