Originally, there were no factions or disputes of any sort between Muslims during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. The dispute started at the time of the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, in 632 CE (11 AH). At that crucial time, the issue of succession of the Prophet arose. The Muslim community in Medina was clearly divided into two groups on the issue of the succession of the Prophet.

The Ahl al-Bayt (أَهْل ٱلْبَيْت), translated as “people of the House (of the Prophet),” was of the firm opinion that Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, who was also the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet and one of his closest companions, was already nominated by the Prophet to lead the Muslim Ummah. They thought that the question of his successor was settled by the Prophet himself during the occasion of Ghadir Khumm (غَدِير خُم), where the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, during his sermon said “من كنت مولاه فهذا على مولاه” (He whose master I am, Ali is his master). They claimed that by saying so, the Prophet had nominated Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as his successor.

On the other hand, some of the close companions of the Prophet, the likes of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ and some others were of another opinion. They thought that the Prophet had never appointed Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as his successor. So, they gathered at a place known as Saqifa and elected Abu Bakr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as the successor of the Prophet. With that, the Rashidun Caliphate (rightly guided Caliphs) started. At the same time, this event drew a clear line between the two groups. However, the Ahl al-Bayt did not create any issues on that occasion, and Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ kept on supporting the Caliphate, despite having resentment on what was decided at Safiqa. But the Ahl al-Bayt never acknowledged the Caliphate of Abu Bakar, Umar, and Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ as the Rightful Successors of the Prophet.

Eventually, the Muslim Community was divided into two main factions, Shia and Sunni. Though, originally, this conflict seemed to be more relevant to the political side, as compared to the religious aspect, it did turn into a clear divide on the religious theology as well. Those supporting Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as the rightful political as well as religious successor of the Prophet were given the name Shia. The group supporting Abu Bakar رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ and later on Umar and Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ, thought they were the rightful successors of the Prophet; hence referred to as Rashidun Caliphs. Later on, this group assumed the title Sunni. The Shia group was of the opinion that the Caliphate of Abu Bakar, Umar, and Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ ع. َنْهُمْ was unlawful and against the will of the Prophet.

At the end of the Rashidun Caliphate, which happened after the martyrdom of the fourth and last Rashidun Caliph Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, the Muslim community experienced its first-ever civil war, commonly referred to as “First Fitna.” It is the emergence of the Umayyad Caliphate, which most historians refer to as a Dynasty instead of a Caliphate. During this time, a third faction also emerged in the Muslim Ummah, referred to as Kharjis. Per their viewpoint, both the Sunni and Shia groups were at fault. They literally declared both of these groups to be the Infidels (Kaafir) or Hypocrites (Munafiqeen). Hence, they declared that the leaders of both these groups should be killed.

Apart from the main division of Sunni and Shia Islam, there are many sub-groups within both of them, as well. Sunnis follow either of the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, or Hanbali jurisprudence. The majority of the Shia follow the concept of Twelve Imams, hence known as Twelvers. They follow the Jafari Jurisprudence. Other small groups within the Shia faction are Ismailis and Zaydis, sometimes also referred to as “seveners” and “fivers,” respectively.

In the recent past, another faction has also emerged, though not in the shape of a formal group called the “non-denominational Muslims.” These Muslims do not associate themselves with any of the factions; rather, they like to be called just a “Muslim.”

Sunni Islam

Sunni is the largest faction within Islam worldwide, with around 85% of the total Muslim population being followers of Sunnism. Sunnis are sometimes referred to as “Ahl as-Sunnah Wal Jamaat” and more commonly just as “Ahl as-Sunnah” (أهل السنة). Sunnis are the followers of the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ and the acts and practices of the companions of the Prophet, also referred to as “Sahaba.” The Sunnah of the Prophet includes his teachings, practices, acts, and examples set by him in his personal life. Hence, the expression Sunni is derived from the Arabic word Sunnah, which the Sunnis like to follow.

Core Beliefs in Sunni Islam

Sunni faction of Islam is the largest group within Islam. As adopted by them, the name Sunni comes from one of their basic beliefs of following the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. The basic sources of their belief are the Quran, Hadith, and Ijma (consensus). In this context, they use all six authentic books of Hadith, Sahi Al-Bukhair, Sahi Al-Muslim, Sunan Abi Dawood, Jami Tirmidhi, Sunan An-Nasai, and Sunan Ibn Majah.

The Islamic Laws (Sharia) in the Sunni Islam are mainly based on the above-referred three main sources. They further use juristic discretion and analogical reasoning to formulate laws of public welfare. Hence, the Sunni jurisprudence is based on the six essential articles of faith as under:

  1. Belief in Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى
  2. Belief in Angels,
  3. Belief in Divine Books
  4. Belief in Prophets and Messengers
  5. Belief in the Day of Judgment
  6. Belief in Predestination

These articles of faith are derived primarily from different verses of the Quran, such as the 285th verse of Surah Al-Baqarah:

Translation

The Messenger has believed in the Guidance which has been sent down to him from his Lord, and those who believe in the Messenger have also sincerely accepted the same. They all believe in Allah, His Angels, His Books and Messengers. And they say, “We do not discriminate against any of His Messengers. We have heard the Message and submitted to it. Our Lord, we look up to You for forgiveness, for to You we shall all return.

Here, the essential beliefs of a Muslim are described being belief in Allah سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ, belief in Angels, belief in Holy Books and belief in Prophets and Messengers. In the last part of the verse, belief in the Day of Resurrection is also emphasized.

The same concept of faith is narrated in a different context in the 136th verse of Surah An-Nisa:

Translation

Believers! Believe in Allah and His Messenger and in the Book He has revealed to His Messenger, and in the Book He revealed before. And whoever disbelieves in Allah, in His angels, in His Books, in His Messengers and in the Last Day, has indeed strayed far away.

These verses of the Quran specifically emphasize the believers to have faith in all the Books, including the Quran and the previous divine books. The same is also emphasized while mentioning the Prophets and Messengers. Apart from having belief in the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, it is also required by the believers to have faith in the previous Messengers and Prophets.

Similarly, the concept of predestination, the last of the six essential articles of faith in Sunni Islam, is also derived from the Quranic verses. This has been mentioned in the Quran multiple times, like the 22nd verse of Surah Al-Hadeed:

Translation

No misfortune ever befalls on earth, nor on yourselves but We have inscribed it in the Book before We make it manifest. Surely that is easy for Allah.

The concept of predestination is further explained in the 42nd verse of Surah Ar-Ra’d, where it is mentioned that everything is pre-planned by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

Translation

Those who lived before them also devised many a plot, but the master plot rests with Allah. He knows what everyone does. The deniers of the truth will soon come to know whose end is good.

Likewise, there are quite a few Hadiths as well, where these essential articles of faith are emphasized as the basic requirement of being a believer. One such Hadith appears in 54a Book 1 of Sahih Muslim:

Translation

Abu Huraira reported: The Messenger of Allah (may peace and blessing be upon him) observed: You shall not enter Paradise so long as you do not affirm belief (in all those things which are the articles of faith) and you will not believe as long as you do not love one another. Should I not direct you to a thing which, if you do, will foster love amongst you: (i.e.) give currency to (the practice of paying salutation to one another by saying) as-salamu alaikum.

So, the essential articles of faith forming the core beliefs in Sunni Islam are based on the interpretation of various Quranic verses as well as the authentic Hadiths, as supplemented by the acts and practices of the companions of the Prophet.

Practices in Sunni Islam

Practices, including religious rituals and the social and economic framework, are mainly the same across different factions of Islam, such as prayers, fasting pilgrimage, and interpersonal relations. However, there are many areas where differences exist between different sects within Islam, especially between Sunni and Shia Islam.

Sunni Islam follows the concept of five pillars of Islam (أركان الإسلام), which provide guidelines for religious, social and economic activities:

  1. The profession of faith (Shahadah) – It is first and foremost important part of the faith, forming the basic religious practice (لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله). It comprises two parts. Firstly, the believer asserts that there is no God but Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى and that He is the Only One. Second part of the profession of faith is the confirmation by the believers that Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ is the Prophet and Messenger of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى
  2. Prayers (Salah) – Per Sunni Islam, there are five compulsory prayers in the day: Fajr, Dhuhr, Asr, Maghrib, and Isha (Pre-morning, Noon, Afternoon, Sunset, and Night). Each Prayer is performed at a specific time. Apart from that, a special prayer is also performed on Friday (Jumma Prayer), in lieu of Dhuhar prayer. Each Prayer has a specific number of units (Rakah). For adult men, it is obligatory to perform these prayers in Mosques in the congregation (Jamaat) under the leadership of the Imam. Women are required to offer prayers separately in their homes. The pre-requisite of offering prayers is ablution (Wudu), neat and clean clothes, and neatness of the place, where prayers are to be performed.
  3. Almsgiving (Zakat) – It is a sort of religious tax that is mandatory for those who possess a pre-determined wealth, known as “nisab.” Zakat is applicable to such persons at a rate of 2.5% of their total holdings on the day. The poorest segment of the community is eligible to get financial assistance through Zakat. Though not compulsory, traditionally, it is a common practice to give Zakat during the month of Ramadan. In many countries, the collection of Zakat is centralized at the Government level and subsequently spent for the welfare of the poor and needy people.
  4. Fasting (Sawm) – Fasting during the month of Ramadan is compulsory for all adult men and women, with the exception of those who are traveling, sick, or not able to fast due to any physical or medical conditions. Fasting can be done during the month of Ramadan, as well, but that would be an additional act of worship, whereas fasting during the whole month of Ramadan is a compulsory act.
  5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) – Traveling to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, to perform Hajj (Pilgrimage) is the fifth and the last pillar in Sunni Islam. It is mandatory once in a lifetime for every adult man and woman. However, those not physically fit enough to do so are exempted. Those not having sufficient financial resources are also exempted from compulsory performance of Hajj.

These five pillars of Islam are also mentioned in Hadith, commonly referred to as “Hadith of Jibril”, appearing in serial 43 in Book 2 of Sahih Al-Bukhari:

Translation

One day while the Prophet (ﷺ) was sitting in the company of some people, (The angel) Gabriel came and asked, “What is faith?” Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) replied, ‘Faith is to believe in Allah, His angels, (the) meeting with Him, His Apostles, and to believe in Resurrection.” Then he further asked, “What is Islam?” Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) replied, “To worship Allah Alone and none else, to offer prayers perfectly to pay the compulsory charity (Zakat) and to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan.” Then he further asked, “What is Ihsan (perfection)?” Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) replied, “To worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you.” Then he further asked, “When will the Hour be established?” Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) replied, “The answerer has no better knowledge than the questioner. But I will inform you about its portents.1. When a slave (lady) gives birth to her master.2. When the shepherds of black camels start boasting and competing with others in the construction of higher buildings. And the Hour is one of five things which nobody knows except Allah. The Prophet (ﷺ) then recited: “Verily, with Allah (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour–.” (31. 34) Then that man (Gabriel) left and the Prophet (ﷺ) asked his companions to call him back, but they could not see him. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said, “That was Gabriel who came to teach the people their religion.” Abu ‘Abdullah said: He (the Prophet) considered all that as a part of faith.

Major Sects within Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam is further divided into four major sects, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali, which are based on the interpretation of Islamic theology in the formulation of Islamic Laws, commonly referred to as Jurisprudence. While the main source of Islamic law remains consistent with all the four major sects within Sunni Islam, there are minor differences between them, which are primarily based on using the basic sources to derive the law.

· Hanafis

Hanafis form the majority sect within Sunni Islam. The founder of this group or branch of Sunni Islam is Imam Abu Hanifa, who was a renowned religious scholar and jurist of the 8th Century CE. The process of formulating the Islamic Laws was based on open discussions by the Imam with his students, specifically chosen for this purpose. The final decision was not taken in haste; rather, they would reach a consensus, even taking more than a month in discussions on a single matter. Once the decision was made, the most senior student of the Imam was responsible for formulating the law accordingly and then recording it in the shape of a book.

Following this process, Imam Abu Hanifa used to take the relevant questions one by one and get the rulings recorded in the form of Chapters and Books, such as the Book of Tahara (Purification), Book of Salah (Prayers), and so on.

Presently, this sect of Sunni Islam is followed by the vast majority of the Muslims, estimated to be around 30% of the total Sunni population. Its followers are present in almost every Muslim-majority country across the world.

· Malikis

The founder of this sect of Sunni Islam was Imam Malik Ibn Ans. The followers of this sect are known as Malikis. Like the Hanafi faction, the Maliki faction was also founded in the 8th Century CE.

Though the basic source in Maliki jurisprudence was the Quran and Sunnah, they also preferred the consensus of the people of Medina as a valid source of interpretation of Islamic Law. After the Hanafi jurisprudence, Maliki is the second largest group within Sunni Islam. The order of preference in deriving a particular Islamic Law was the Quran, Sunnah, acts of the People of Medina, and then the consensus of the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ.

Imam Malik compiled his work in the form of a Book titled Muwatta Imam Malik. Muwatta mostly contains references from the most authentic Hadiths, along with commentary from Imam Malik, hence considered the most relevant book.

The Maliki jurisprudence is quite similar to the Hanafi jurisprudence in most of the issues. The main difference with Hanafi jurisprudence is the reliance on analogy by the Hanafis, as contrasted with Malikis, who mostly rely on “Istislah,” the Public Interest, especially in matters where sufficient details are not available in the Quran and Hadith.

The followers of Maliki jurisprudence can be found in North and West Africa, Sudan, Chad, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Dubai, UAE, as well as parts of Saudi Arabia. During the Islamic era, the majority of Muslims in Spain and Sicily followed Maliki jurisprudence.

· Shafi’is

Shafi’ism comes in third place in the order of popularity and following in Sunni Islam. It was founded by Imam Shafi’i in the early 9th century CE. He was a traditionalist, theologian, scholar, and jurist. The Shafi’i group also uses the Quran and Hadith as the main sources of Islamic Law, followed by the option of Qiyas and Ijma. However, they do not accept the local traditions as the source of Islamic law. Likewise, they do not use the Personal Opinions of People (Ahl-ar Raye) as a valid source for deriving Islamic Laws.

Although the Shafi’i school of thought is primarily a sub-sect of Sunni Islam, it is closer to Shia Islam in some matters. They give priority to Ahl al-Bayt by emphasizing their infallibility, like the Shias.

The Middle East region was once the stronghold of the followers of Shafi’is. Still, with the rise of the Ottoman and Safavids, their influence gradually diminished in this part of the world. At present, the followers of Shafi’i jurisprudence can be found in parts of Saudi Arabia along the West Coastal region. It is also followed in parts of Egypt and Yemen, South and Southeast Asia, and the North Caucasian region.

· Hanbalis

Hanbali is the smallest group among the four major factions of Sunni Islam. It was also established by Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal in the 9th Century CE. The Hanbalis are the strictest followers of the Traditionalist School of Theology.

The Quran and Hadith are the prime sources of Islamic Law in this jurisprudence, followed by the practices of the Companions of the Prophet. In contrast with the other schools of thought they do not accept Traditions of the Communities as the valid source of Islamic Law.

Saudi Arabia and Qatar are the main areas where the Hanbali sect exists. Apart from this, this jurisprudence is also the most popular school of thought in Sharjah, Ajman, Ra’s al Khaimah, and Ummul Quwain states within UAE, with considerable following in Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, and Oman as well.

Though debatable, some scholars claim that the official Islamic faith of Saudi Arabia, known as Wahhabism, is influenced by the Hanbali School.

Shia Islam

Shia is the second largest group in Islam, with around 15% followership amongst the Muslim population worldwide. The origin of Shia Islam dates back to the very early days of Islam, just after the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. At that crucial time, the Muslim community was divided into two groups. The Ahl al-Bayt (the people of the House) were of the view that the Prophet had appointed Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as his successor during the event of Ghadir Khumm. Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ was one of the closest companions of the Prophet, as well as his cousin and son-in-law.

On the other hand, some of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ were of the view that the Prophet had never appointed his successor. Eventually, the succession was assigned to Abu Bakar رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ by electing him as the first Caliph. Though no immediate reaction was shown by the group of Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ on this unilateral selection of the Caliph, it did draw a clear line between both the groups, which eventually led to the emergence of the Shia Islam.

Shia is an Arabic word (شيعة) that can be translated as “Partisan,” “Faction,” or “Follower.” The term used for Shia Islam is derived from the earlier expression “Shia at-Ali” (شيعة علي), which means “Partisans of Ali.” Later on, it was generalized as “Shia.”

According to the Shia theology, Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ was designated by the Prophet as his rightful successor to lead the Muslim community, politically as well as spiritually. On the religious and spiritual side, the concept of Imamah emerged, with Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ being the first Imam. They believed that the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, by way of the bloodline of Ali and his sons Hassan and Hussain رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ were the rightful spiritual leaders (Imams), as they possessed special spiritual authority by virtue of their being the descendants of the Prophet. This led to the development of the concept of Imamate.

After the martyrdom of Hussain Ibn Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ in the Battle of Kabala, the Shia theology gradually converted into Shia Islam. The concept of 12 Imams resulted in the emergence of the Shia branch of Islam, named “Twelvers,” which is followed by around 85% of the total Shia Muslims across the world. Though other small factions exist within Shia Islam, generally, the term Twelvers symbolizes Shia Islam.

Distinctive Beliefs in Shia Islam

While the basics of the Islamic teachings remain consistent across different sects, there are many such areas, where Shia Islam differs from the main sect, Sunni Islam. Some of their distinctive beliefs are as under:

· The Rightful Successor to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ

The issue of succession to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ forms the base of the differences between the two main factions in Islam. The followers of Shia Islam believe that Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ was designated as his successor by the Prophet on several occasions, especially quoting the event of Ghadir Khumm. During his sermon on this occasion, he said, “He whose master I am, Ali is his master.” This saying of the Prophet is considered as the designation of Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ as the successor of the Prophet.

On the basis of this belief, the main contention between the Shia and Sunni branches of Islam arose. While the Sunnis believe that Abu Bakar, Umar, Uthman and Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ are all the Rashidun Caliphs (rightly guided caliphs), Shias don’t believe in it. They believe that Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ was the rightful successor to the Prophet.

· Declaration of Shahada (Faith)

It is the basic requirement for all the Muslims to stand witness that “there is no God but Allah سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ and that Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ is His Messenger and Prophet” (لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله,). Shias add another expression after it, “علي ولي الله” (Ali is the Guardian of Allah). Shias believe that the 55th verse of the Surah Al-Ma’ida, supports this perception:

Translation

Only Allah, His Messenger, and those who believe and who establish Prayer pay Zakah, and bow (before Allah) are your allies.

So, the declaration of faith has three parts in the Shia theology, the Oneness of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ and Imamah of Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ. The concept of Imamate thus means that the religious leadership belongs to the descendants of the family of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ through the bloodline of Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ.

· Infallibility of Ahl al-Bayt (Ismah)

Ismah is an Arabic word (عِصْمَة) which means “inability to commit sins.” The term Infallibility is also used to describe Ismah. This expression is specifically attributed to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ as well as for all the previous Prophets and Messengers, almost in every branch of Islam. The Shia Muslims believe that Fatima رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا, the daughter of the Prophet, is also infallible along with all the Twelve Imams. This infallibility of the Imams is one of the core beliefs of Twelvers and Ismailis, whereas the Zaydi branch of Shia Islam does not accept this concept.

The Shia theologists believe that the Verse of Purification (33rd verse of Surah Al-Ahzab) also supports the concepts of the Infallibility of the Imams.

Translation

And stay in your homes and do not go about displaying your allurements as in the former Time of Ignorance. Establish Prayer, give Zakah, and obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah only wishes to remove uncleanness from you, O members of the (Prophet’s) household, and to purify you completely

The above verse is addressed explicitly to the Ahl al-Bayt, supporting the concept of their infallibility.

· Imam Mahdi

Another distinctive belief in Shia Islam is the emergence of Imam Mahdi, near the end of times. He is the twelfth Imam per the belief of Twelvers. It is believed that the Imam is currently hidden and will return to the world before the Day of Judgment. He would then remove injustice from the world and launch the Islamic State. The main point in the belief of the Twelvers about Imam Mahdi is that he has gone into occultation (Hidden from the world), which differs from the other sects of Islam as well from other subsects within Shia Islam.

Practices in Shia Islam

The main religious practice of offering prayers differs in Shia Islam as compared to the Sunnis. Shias believe in three daily prayers instead of five, combining the Dhuhar and Asr and then combining the Maghrib and Isha prayers, known as Dhuhrayn and Maghribayn. They are of the view that the Quran only specifies three distinct times for Prayers instead of five.

Apart from the two Eids, they also celebrate the Eid al-Gharid in commemoration of the event of Ghadir Khumm. They also observe the 10th Muharram as the day of mourning, being the martyrdom day of Hussain Ibn Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ in the Battle of Karbala.

Shias also celebrate the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, which, according to their belief, falls on 17th of Rabi al-Awwal, instead of 12th of the same month, as believed by other branches of Islam. Additionally, they also celebrate the birthdays of Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ and Fatima رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا.

Another special occasion in Shia Islam is known as Eid al-Mubahila, which falls on the 24th of Dhul Hajj, in commemoration of the event of Mubahilah, a meeting between the Ahl al-Bayt and a Christian delegation.

The Twelve Imams and the Concept of Imamate

The Twelvers are the main sect within Shia Islam, having a followership of around 85% of the total Shia population. The concept of Imamate is the base of the Twelver Shia Islam. They believe that after the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, the spiritual and religious leadership has been transferred to his descendants, from the members of the Ahl al-Bayt.

Accordingly, they believe that Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ was the first Imam in the line of the Imamate. Imams are believed to possess the divine knowledge as well as the infallibility. Hence, they are the right persons to interpret the divine words, as narrated in the Quran.

Imam (إمام) is an Arabic word that means “the one who stands in front” or “the one who leads.” Per Shia Islam, the phrase Imam is specifically used for the members of the family of the Prophet, who are designated to the status of Imamate and are considered infallible.

The concept of Imamate dates back to the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet specifically mentioned, “He whose master I am, Ali is his master.” Accordingly, Shias believe that the Arabic word “Mawla” means “Master”; hence they give the status of Imamah to him and recognize him as the first in the line of Imamate.

· The Twelve Imams in Shia Islam

The line of Imamate starts with Ali and ends with the last and hidden Imam Mahdi. The list of 12 Imams in Shia Islam is as under:

  1. Ali Ibn Abi Talib – He assumed Imamate at the age of 33 and remained at this status till his martyrdom at the age of 61. Hence, he remained Imam for 28 years.
  2. Hassan Ibn Ali – He was the successor to the first Imam and assumed Imamate at the age of 39 years and remained at this status for 8 years. He was poisoned by his wife on the orders of the Caliph Muawiya.
  3. Hussain Ibn Ali – After the demise of the second Imam, his younger brother Hussain was elevated to the status of Imamate at the age of 46 years. His Imamate ended after 11 years when he was martyred at the age of 57 years in the Battle of Karbala. He is also known as Imam Mazlum (Tyrannized).
  4. Ali Ibn Hussain – The fourth Imam, Ali Ibn Hussain, was elevated to the Imamate at the age of 23 years and remained Imam for 34 years. He was poisoned at the orders of the then Caliph.
  5. Muhammad Ibn Ali al Baqar – The fifth Imam assumed the Imamate at the age of 38 years and remained there for 19 years. He was also poisoned by the orders of the Caliph.
  6. Jaffar Ibn Muhammad as Sadiq – Commonly known as Jaffar As-Sadiq, was one of the most prominent Imams in Shia Islam and is the founder of the Jafari jurisprudence, which is followed by the Twelvers Shias. He remained Imam for 34 years, after assuming Imamate at the age of 31 years. He was poisoned by the orders of the Caliph.
  7. Musa Ibn Jaffar Al Kazim – The seventh Imam in the line of Imamate assumed this status at the age of 20 and remained there for 35 years. After him, the Ismaili faction separated from the Twelvers and followed their separate Imamate hence, they are also known as Seveners. He remained in prison and was poisoned by the orders of the Caliph.
  8. Ali Ibn Musa Al Rida – He assumed Imamate at the age of 35 and remained there for 20 years. He is known for his religious discussions with Non-Muslims as well as Muslims. He was poisoned at the orders of the Caliph.
  9. Muhammad Ibn Ali – He was elevated to the status of Imamate at the age of 8 years. He was poisoned by his wife on the orders of the then Abbasid Caliph at the age of 25. He is known for his piety and generosity.
  10. Ali Ibn Muhammad Al Hadi – Elevated to the status of Imam at the age of 8 years and remained there for 34 years. He reinforced the network of deputies within the Shia Muslims. He was also poisoned on the orders of the then Caliph.
  11. Hassan Ibn Ali Al Askari – He became Imam at the age of 22 and was poisoned on the orders of the then Caliph at the age of 28 years. He remained under restrictions imposed by the Caliph.
  12. Hujjat Allah Ibn Al Hassan Al Mahdi – The last Imam in the line of 12 Imams is believed to have hidden himself somewhere and would appear near the end of times.

Other Shia Branches (Zaidiyyah, Ismailism)

Although Shia Islam predominantly comprises the Twelvers, a couple of small denominations also exist: the Ismailis and Zaidis, also referred to as the Seveners and Fivers, respectively:

· Ismailism

After the death of the sixth Imam of Shia Islam, Jaffar As-Sadiq, a conflict arose. The main sect, the Twelvers, accepted Musa Al-Kazim as the successor of Jaffar As-Sadiq, whereas a group, later on, titled Ismailis, accepted Ismail Ibn Jaffar As-Sadiq, the elder brother of Musa Al-Kazim, as the next Imam. From here on, the Ismaili sect separated from the mainstream Shia Islam. They followed their line of Imamate, Sir Agha Khan IV being the 49th and current Imam in Ismailism.

The followers of Ismailism can be found in the Northern areas of Pakistan. They are also present in other areas like India, Central Asia, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Iran, Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia.

· Zaidyyism

Zaidiyyah is the third faction within the Shia Islam. It was founded by Zayd Ibn Ali, who launched a battle against the Umayyad Caliphate but remained unsuccessful in throwing their Caliphate. Zaidis are considered closer to the Sunnis, as compared to other sects in Shia Islam. They are known for their tilt towards the Shafi’ism. They rely more on rationalism as compared to the Quranic literalism.

The Twelver Shias often rate them as the fifth school of Sunnism. Zaidis are currently living in the Najran region of Saudi Arabia and in North Yemen.

Other Islamic Movements and Sects

In addition to the main division of Islam in Shia and Sunni Islam and their sub-sects, some other Islamic movements or sects are also worth mentioning here. Among them, the most important is the mystical tradition, popularly known as Sufism.

· Sufism: Mystical Traditions and Orders

Sufism is a mystical tradition in Islam that dates back to the earlier era of Islam. It is based on the concept of internal purification by the Sufis, practicing Sufism. Sufism is an Islamic practice focusing on spirituality while maintaining Islamic religious rituals.

The expression “Sufi” finds its root in the word “safe” (صفاء), which is translated as “Purity” or, more precisely, “tazkiya,” which can be translated as Self-purification. By adopting the process of Self-purification, the Sufis can accomplish their ultimate goal of getting closer to their Creator, Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

The roots of Sufism go back to the very early days of Islam but it gained popularity during the regime of Umayyads, mainly as a resistance movement against the distraction of the Umayyad Caliphate from the basics of the Islamic teachings and their visible approach towards worldliness.

Although Sufism is mainly practiced in Sunni Islam, its impact is also visible in Shia Islam in the shape of the concept of Irfan, which is attributed to knowledge, awareness, and wisdom.

· Mystical Traditions in Sufism

The main practices of Sufism include Dhikar, which means reciting the name of Allahسُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, continuously and countlessly.  Sufis used to do this practice during most of the time daily. This practice is believed to get one closer to Allah سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ.

Another mystical practice of Sufis is the concept of self-purification, which is aimed at reaching the ultimate stage of Sufism, being elevated to the status of Wali, which is translated as “the friend of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. They believe this status cannot be achieved without a competent religious teacher or chain of teachers. Once a Sufi attains this goal, the next mystical practice comes, which is called Bay’ah (بَيْعَة). The history of Bay’ah, dates back to the first pledge of allegiance with the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ by his Sahaba, Ali Ibn Abi Talib رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ being the first among them. This pledge of allegiance is also mentioned in the Quran, in the 48th verse of Surah Al-Fath.

Translation

Those who swore fealty to you, (O Prophet), in fact, swore fealty to Allah. The Hand of Allah is above their hands. So, whoever breaks his covenant breaks it to his own hurt; and whoever fulfills the covenant that he made with Allah, He will bestow on him a great reward.

So, pledging allegiance to a genuine Sufi is also practiced in Sufism, where a Sufi performs Bay’ah with his teacher, being the core practice before completing the process of adopting Sufism.

Sufism consists of different sub-groups, known as “Tariqa” (طريقة), which is an Arabic term that can be translated as “Order” of Sufism. Each Tariqa of Islamic mysticism follows a typical set of religious and spiritual practices to achieve the ultimate status of being a complete Sufi.

· Orders of Sufism

Some famous Sufi Orders from all over the Islamic world are as under:

  • Ba’ Alawiyya
  • Burhaniyya
  • Naqshbandi
  • Qadiriyya
  • Owaisia
  • Suhrawardiyya
  • Qalandariyya
  • Chishtia
  • Rehmaniyya
  • Muridiyya

Ibadi Islam

Ibadism or the Ibadi movement in Islam emerged around half a century after the demise of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ. It is believed by some of the historians that this movement was the result of the Kharji traditions. Ibadism is derived from an Arabic phrase (الإباضية). It was founded by Abd Allah Ibn Ibad in 683 CE as a result of an internal split within the Kharjis. The followers of Ibadism are often referred to as “the people of Truth and Integrity” (أهل الحقّ والاستقامة). It is the third major sect in Islam, after Sunnism and Shiaism. Although they are bracketed with the early day’s Kharji movement, they strongly disassociate themselves from that movement these days and insist on being referred to as the third and most relevant sect within Islam.

The followers of Ibadism are found mainly in Oman, Algeria, Libya, Tanzania, and Tunisia.

· Ibadi Imamate

Contrary to the concept of the Rashidun Caliphate of Sunni Islam as well as the Imamate of Shia Islam, the Ibadis believe that there is no need for a centralized Imamate or Caliphate for the entire Muslim world; every nation has the authority to impose their internal rule. They also don’t believe in the Imamate concept of Shia Islam.

Per their belief, the only qualification of an Ibadi Imam would be the condition of being at the highest level of Piety within his community and secondly, he needs to have the complete knowledge of Islamic Jurisprudence. Additionally, the Ibadi Imam has to have enough competence in military strategies so that he may be able to defend and protect his nation in case of any invasion by enemies.

The Ahmadiyya Movement and Islam

The Ahmadiyya movement originated in the Indian City of Qadiyan by a so-called religious activist, namely Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, in the late 19th Century CE, during the British era. Commonly, this movement is known as the Ahmadiyya movement. The followers of this movement are referred to as “Ahmadis” or “Qadiyanis.” They falsely represent themselves to be Muslims but are not considered a sect within Islam by the vast majority of Muslims, especially in Pakistan, where they were officially and constitutionally declared as a non-Muslim minority in 1974.

The main conflicting stance of the Ahmadiyya Movement is the false claim of its founder to be the Prophet, Reformer, and Messiah (Mahdi). The false claim of being Prophet or Mahdi is entirely unacceptable in all branches of Islam, including Sunni as well as Shia Islam. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad’s claim was made in 1891. Soon after his as well as his successor’s death, the movement was split into two groups, in 1914, titled Ahmadi and Lahori groups. However, despite this split, both groups still followed the false claim of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad being Prophet or Mahdi, hence the National Assembly of Pakistan declared both these groups as non-Muslim minorities in 1974.

The concept of the finality of the Prophethood, with the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ, is a critical and sensitive issue in Islam. Anyone pretending to be a Prophet is considered an intolerable act. Hence, anyone claiming Prophethood stands expelled from being a Muslim. The concept of Khatm-e-Nabuwwah (Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ being the Seal of the Prophets) is part of the faith of both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, across the Muslim world. In fact, the faith of a Muslim stands incomplete unless he declares that the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِۦ وَسَلَّمَ is the last Prophet sent to this world by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

Moreover, the followers of the Ahmadiyya movement had launched fictitious copies of the Holy Book of Islam, the Quran, which is yet another serious offense in Islam. Their rituals and worship are also in violation of the teachings of Islam.

The followers of the Ahmadiyya movement can be found in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, as well as in some of the European Countries. While they are officially declared non-Muslim in Pakistan, they still present themselves as Muslim in other countries, especially in Europe. Despite all that, the negative impact of this movement on Islam has gradually declined, as it is based on a false viewpoint.

So, the Ahmadiyya Movement cannot be accepted as an Islamic movement by any means. It is entirely against the basic teachings and norms of Islam and is basically an anti-Islam movement.

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