Islam Guide – The Historical Context and Development of Islam

Islam, in its current form, was initiated with the first divine revelation on Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ in 610 CE, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. But historically, the religion of all the Prophets sent to this world by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى has been the same: Islam. Islamic theology is quite clear on this matter, contrary to Christianity and Judaism, where it is propagated that the previous religions were different from Islam. This fact is narrated in the Quran on several occasions, such as the 19^th verse of Surah Al-e-Imran:

Translation

The true religion of Allah is Islam. The People of the Book adopted many different ways rather than follow the true way of Islam even after the knowledge of truth had reached them, and this merely to commit excesses against one another. Let him who refuses to follow the ordinances and directives of Allah know that Allah is swift in His reckoning.

So, the religion of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى has always been Islam since the very first Prophet Adam was sent to earth. Gradually and steadily, the religion underwent a consistent phase of development and evolution and finally got completed through the final Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, as narrated in the 3^rd verse of Surah Al-Ma’ida:

Translation of the relevant part of the Verse

This day I have perfected for you your religion, and have bestowed upon you My bounty in full measure, and have been pleased to assign for you Islam as your religion. (Follow, then, the lawful and unlawful bounds enjoined upon you.) As for he who is driven by hunger, without being wilfully inclined to sin, surely Allah is All-Forgiving, All-Compassionate.

Starting from the first revelation till the completion of the Quran, along with the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, Islam had turned out to be a complete code of life.  This is the code, which provides guidance for the entire mankind and a solution to every problem that may arise for centuries to come.

Pre-Islamic Arabia

Arabia, (العربية) typically refers to the present day’s Arabian Peninsula. The phrase “Pre-Islamic Arabia” has two dimensions: the cultural traditions and the religions in this area before the inception of Islam.

In the Islamic perspective, the pre-Islamic phase of this region is denoted as “the era of ignorance” (the phase of Jahiliyyah) During this period of ignorance, most of the Arab world was badly indulged in paganism. The Arab world had historically remained the home of various great civilizations. Slowly and gradually, they were distracted from the right path and became polytheists, with the exception of a small number of Christians, who still followed the monotheistic ideology. That’s why, from the Islamic viewpoint, this era is referred to as the “Era of Ignorance” or the “Period of Jahiliyyah”

The most prominent civilizations of pre-Islamic Arabia were the Thamud and Dilmun. Thamud was an ancient tribe that lived in the Northwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula during the period from 3000 BCE to 300 CE. Dilmun, also known as Telmuns, occupied the Eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula for the period from 3^rd millennium BCE to 600 CE. Their territory was situated in the Persian Gulf on the route from Mesopotamia to the Indus Valley Civilization. The Southern part of pre-Islamic Arabia was mainly occupied by various Kingdoms, such as Minaeans and Sabaeans.

By 106 CE northwestern Arabia came under the control of the Roman Empire. The Romans remained in control of this area till 630 CE. A part of the territory remained under the control of the Iranian regime, partly by Parthians and partly by Sasanians.

Pre-Islamic Arabia remained influenced by various religions, such as Christianity, Judaism, Mandaeism, and Zoroastrianism. However, the majority of pre-Islamic Arabia started practicing Polytheism. The Arabs, especially the Meccans, started worshiping Idols (Gods and Goddesses). The Quraysh tribe of Mecca used to worship Hubal (God) and Lat, Manat, and Uzza (Goddesses). They filled the Ka’aba with around 360 such Idols and regularly worshipped them.

By the time Islam emerged in this part of the world, the Quraysh were the most influential and powerful tribe, enjoying the custodianship of the Holy Ka’aba. Due to this special status, they had greater opportunities to interact with the outside world, which also grew their trade and economy.

Just before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, the famous incident of “The People of the Elephants” occurred. A Christina ruler, Abraha, attacked Mecca in an attempt to destroy Ka’aba with a huge army along with Elephants. The Meccans prayed for the help of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى, as they were unable to fight with the army of Abraha. Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى sent down a huge flock of birds (Ababeel), who threw stones at the army of Abraha and completely destroyed them. This incident is narrated in the Surah Al-Feel.

Despite knowing that fact that it was only Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى Who protected them from the Elephants and Army of Abraha, they still followed their faith of polytheism and continued to worship Idols.

The Life of Muhammad

Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ is the last of the long chain of Prophets, which started with the Prophet Adam عَلَيْهِ ٱلسَّلَامُ. That’s why he is also referred to as “Seal of the Prophets” (Arabic خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين). Muhammad is an Arabic word that can be translated as “Praiseworthy” or the one who is highly praised.

Early Life and Revelations

Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was born on Monday, 2^nd of August 570 CE, which is believed to be 12^th of the Islamic month of Rabi Al-Awwal. Abdul Muttalib was the chief of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca. He was the grandfather of Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. Abdul Muttalib was the son of Hashim. Abdullah Ibn Abdul Muttalib was the father of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, whereas Amina Bint Wahb Ibn Abdu Manag, was his mother. She belonged to the Zahra tribe.

The family lineage of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ is “Muhammad Ibn Abdullah, Ibn Abdul Muttalib, Ibn Hashim, Ibn Abdi Manaf, Ibn Qudayy, Ibn Kilab.” That’s why he is often referred to as “Hashmi.” He is the direct descendant of Prophet Ismael عَلَيْهِ ٱلسَّلَامُ, in the fortieth place.

The early life and childhood of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was unique. His father died just before his birth. When the Prophet was just around 6 years of age, his mother also expired. Hence, his grandfather took the responsibility of the young orphan. Unfortunately, his grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, also died a couple of years later. While on his deathbed, Abdul Muttalib entrusted the patronage of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ to his uncle Abu Talib (who was one of the sons of Abdul Muttalib). So, the Prophet grew under the patronage of his uncle Abu Talib.

Important Events in The Early Life of The Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ

Following major events in the life of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ happened:

· The First Signs of Prophethood

Abu Talib was a trader and often traveled to far off places. When Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was 12 years old, his uncle Abu Talib took him along for a trading journey to Syria. Here, an old Christian Monk, Bahira, met them. The old monk recognized the young Muhammad (as a would-be Prophet) and asked Abu Talib to take good care of this boy and protect him from the evil acts of Jews, as a great career was ahead of your young nephew. This is said to be the first sign and evidence of the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ.

· The Character

Right from a very young age, Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ used to refrain from the wrong practices, which were common amongst the youth of that era. He held a strong character. He never lied, he maintained the correctness of manners, and above all, he earned a repute for being honest, truthful, and trustworthy. Hence, he was unanimously declared as Al-Ameen and As-Sadiq (the faithful and truthful). This was a unique and rare status earned by a youth of that era.

· First Marriage

At the age of 25 years, he got married to Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا. She was a merchant and young Muhammad used to travel for trading on her behalf. Being As-Sadiq and Al-Ameen, he took extraordinary care of the trading interests of Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا, which resulted in their marriage. This marriage proved to be a great success for both of them.

· The Wisdom

After the death of Abdul Muttalib, the grandfather of the Prophet, the command of the Quraysh tribe was entrusted to a group of ten elders of the tribe. But the lawlessness in the area consistently kept on worsening. The situation was very alarming for the weak segment of society as well as the outsiders. They were frequently robbed and mishandled by the powerful class of Quraysh. At the age of 30 years, Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ established a league of elders known as the “Federation of Fudul,” which ensured the safety and protection of all the weak and oppressed people, whether local or outsiders. This went a long way in protecting the rights of the oppressed class.

At the age of 35, the historic event of the installation of Black Stone (Hajr Aswad) happened. In the year 605 CE, renovation work of the Holy Ka’aba was done by the Meccans. All tribes and clans took an active part in this noble task. However, a dispute arose among the tribes as to who would place the Black Stone (Hajr Aswad) in its proper location. The dispute might have resulted in the usual bloodshed prevalent in those times. But sanity prevailed, and the elders declared that whoever entered the Holy Ka’aba the next morning’s decision would be acceptable to everyone.

Next morning, Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was the first to enter the Ka’aba. Everyone was satisfied that he would handle the matter wisely. The Prophet asked for a big piece of cloth, which was provided to him. He put the Black stone on it and asked everyone to hold the corners of the cloth and take it to the location of the Black Stone. All the tribal representatives took an active part in this task and eventually, the Black Stone reached its destination. The Prophet then placed the Black Stone in its correct position. Everyone was happy and satisfied. Hence, a potential bloodshed was averted due to the wisdom and justice of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ.

Early Revelations and Prophethood

By the time, Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was 40 years old, he had developed a habit of seclusion. He used to spend a lot of time in isolation in a cave on Mount Hira, situated on the outskirts of Mecca. He would spend days and nights here in worshiping. On one such day, the Angel Gabriel was sent down to him with the first revelation from Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. The Angel asked him, “READ.” The Prophet replied, “I can’t read.” The Angel squeezed him and again asked him to Read. This was repeated three times and then the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ read the first ever verses revealed upon him. His heart was trembling while he repeated the revealed verses. These are the first five verses of Surah Al-Alaq:

Translation

1. Recite in the name of your Lord Who created,
2. created man from a clot of congealed blood
3. Recite: and your Lord is Most Generous,
4. Who taught by the pen,
5. taught man what he did not know.

This event took him with fear. He immediately returned home and asked his wife Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا to wrap him in a blanket. She did so, and gradually, he came out of the state of fear. Then he told Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا what had happened. She instantly said, you are a truthful person, so Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى will not let you down. She further said you are the “chosen one.” Then she went to her cousin Waraqa Ibn Naufal, who was a scholar of Old Jewish and Christian scriptures. On listening to the details of the event, he immediately said that Muhammad is the Prophet and the words revealed upon him are from Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.

Quite a considerable time lapsed after the first revelation, during which the Prophet remained under immense mental pressure. Later, another revelation came, which was the first three verses of Surah Al-Muddathir:

Translation:

1. O you enveloped in your cloak!
2. Arise, and warn,
3. and magnify the glory of your Lord,

Hence, the Prophethood of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was established. He started spreading the “message.” His wife, Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا, was the first to embrace Islam. His cousin and son of Abu Talib, Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, was the first among the youth to enter into Islam, followed by the adopted son of the Prophet, Zaid. Afterward, a well-known and influential person amongst the Quraysh, namely Abu Bakr رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, also embraced Islam, who later on became one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ.

The Prophet also talked to his beloved Uncle Abu Talib about the Message of the truth. He listened patiently and said I cannot refrain from the religion of my elders, but I will support you in your noble task and assure you that none of the Meccans could harm you. Meanwhile, Abu Talib also allowed his son Ali to go with the new faith.

The Meccan Period

The centuries-old polytheism and Idolatrous traditions of Quraysh were hard to change, especially when they had political and economic interests associated with it. This was a great challenge for Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. But he was committed to his mission, as entrusted to him by Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. The first three years of Prophethood were quite hard for him. However, he continued with his efforts.

In these three years, the number of his followers had just reached thirty. Now, the Prophet decided to reach out to the general public. Hence, he managed a public gathering on a nearby hill. Quite a reasonable number of audiences turned up to listen to him. The Prophet invited them to the concept of monotheism and asked them to discontinue idolatry and polytheism. The outcome was not encouraging. People listened to him and went back without a positive response.

As a next step, the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ ventured to spread his message to the people outside of Mecca. The Pilgrims traveling to Mecca was now his target. On the other hand, Quraysh were also trying to create hurdles in the preaching of the Prophet. Despite all their efforts, the message of the Prophet did reach the visitors and traders. While back in their home towns, they spoke about the preaching of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ with their people. So, the message was spread beyond the boundaries of Mecca.

With the passage of time, the number of the followers of Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ kept on increasing. Side by side, the Quraysh’s oppression against the new Muslims also increased, especially to the weak segment of the society. The slaves were an easy target for them.

On the other hand, more notables of the society were joining the new faith. Hamza was one of the uncles of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. He also embraced Islam and was given the title “the Lion of Allah.”

Quraysh Try to Bribe Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ

The increasing number of followers of Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was being seen as a sign of threat by the Quraysh. They thought that their political and economic influence was in danger. Hence, they decided to bribe the Prophet. Utba Ibn Rabia was one of the notables of the Quraysh. He was assigned the task.

Utba met Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ and asked him to discontinue his preaching. He also offered him various incentives, such as honor, wealth, chiefship of the tribe, and whatever else he wanted. He even offered to make him King. The Prophet patiently listened to him and then recited verses 1 to 13 of Surah Fussilat:

Translation

1. Ha’. Mim.
2. This is a revelation from the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate
3. a Book whose verses have been well-expounded; an Arabic Qur’an for those who have knowledge,
4. one bearing good news and warning. Yet most of them turned away and are not wont to give heed.
5. They say: “Our hearts are securely wrapped up against what you call us to, and in our ears is a heaviness, and between you and us there is a veil. So act; we too are acting.”
6. Tell them, (O Prophet): “I am only a human being like you. It is revealed to me that your God is One God; so direct yourselves straight to Him, and seek His forgiveness. Woe to those who associate others with Allah in His Divinity,
7. who do not pay Zakah, and who deny the Hereafter.
8. As to those who have faith and do good works, surely theirs shall be a never-ending reward.
9. Tell them, (O Prophet): “Do you indeed disbelieve in Him and assign compeers to Him Who created the earth in two days? He is the Lord of all beings of the Universe.
10. (After creating the earth) He set up firm mountains on it, blessed it, and provided it with sustenance in proportion to the needs of all who seek (sustenance). All this was done in four days.
11. Then He turned to the heaven while it was all smoke. He said to the heaven and the earth: “Come (into being), willingly or unwillingly.” They said: “Here we come (into being) in willing obeisance.”
12. Then He made them seven heavens in two days and revealed to each heaven its law. And We adorned the lower heaven with lamps and firmly secured it. All this is the firm plan of the All-Mighty, the All-Knowing.
13. But if they turn away, tell them: “I warn you against a sudden scourge like that which struck Ad and Thamud.”

The Prophet then said, this is my response to your offers; now, it is your decision; do whatever you think is best.

However, the persecution of Quraysh did not end. Resultantly, the first migration in the history of Islam happened. On the advice of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, some of his followers migrated to the neighboring territory Abyssinia, ruled by a Christian King, who was known for his hospitality and tolerance. Eventually, 83 men and 18 women migrated from Mecca to Abyssinia. This historic event occurred in the fifth year of the Prophethood.

Other Important Events in Mecca

The Meccan period of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was a difficult and testing time for him as well as his followers.

The Quraysh asked the Prophet to show signs and miracles, as were given to the previous Prophets. The Prophet replied that such miracles had proven worthless, as the nations of the previous Prophets did not come to the right path despite the display of miracles.

Quraysh asked Abu Talib to stop his nephew from preaching against the Idols. They warned him of serious consequences, in case he fails to stop Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. This was a difficult situation for Abu Talib. He neither wanted to separate himself from the tribe nor was he willing to stop protecting his nephew. He spoke to Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ about the warning of the Quraysh. The Prophet responded with the historic words.

Quote

“O my uncle, if they placed the sun in my right hand and the moon in my left hand to cause me to renounce my task, verily I would not desist therefrom until Allah made manifest His cause or I perished in the attempt.”

Unquote

Meanwhile, another influential and notable personality embraced Islam. This was Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ. He was a powerful member of the society. His entry gave strength to the Islamic community in Mecca.

By the seventh year of Prophethood, another noticeable event happened. When Abu Talib refused to stop his nephew from preaching Islam, the Quraysh boycotted the two sub-tribes, Bani Hashim and Bani Muttalib, as they were the supporters of Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. The two families were forced to live in isolation for three years.

By the start of the tenth year of Prophethood, the isolation of the two families ended after mediation by some of the notables of Meccan society. Soon after this, the Prophet suffered the loss of his Uncle Abu Talib and his wife Khadija رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا. Both died one after the other in the same year, commonly referred to as “Aam al-Huzn – عام الحزن,” “the year of sorrow,” or “the year of Sadness,” as both of them were the greatest supporters of the Prophet.

Soon after that, the Prophet traveled to Ta’if, a neighboring area of Mecca. He stayed there for around one month but received a cold response in general. The people of Ta’if did not listen to his preaching and mishandled him as well. The Prophet then returned, back to Mecca.

It was the 12^th year of Prophethood when the historic event of Miraj took place. The Prophet ascended to the heavens during the night of Miraj An-Nabi (the night journey). During this night, the Prophet was physically taken from Mecca to Jerusalem and then from Jerusalem to the heavens and back, as is narrated in the first verse of Surah Al-Isra:

Translation

Holy is He Who carried His servant by night from the Holy Mosque (in Makkah) to the farther Mosque (in Jerusalem) whose surroundings We have blessed that We might show him some of Our Signs. Indeed He alone is All-Hearing, All-Seeing.

The Migration (Hijrah) To Medina

After an eventful period of thirteen years in Mecca, the Prophet decided to migrate to Yasrab, which was later named “Medina.”

The Prophet had earlier sent Musab Ibn Umair to Medina to teach Islam to the Yasrabites. After some time, he returned to Mecca with more than seventy men and two women who had already adopted Islam. They invited the Prophet to come and settle in Medina. Due to the increasing persecution of the Meccans, the Prophet agreed with their proposal.

The Prophet then instructed his followers to leave Mecca quietly and take refuge in Medina. More than one hundred families migrated to Medina silently. The Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was left behind only with his young cousin Ali and his closest companion Abu Bakr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ.

The Quraysh were quite disturbed and angry about this development. They decided to stop the Prophet from migrating to Medina. They conspired to kill him. Meanwhile, this conspiracy, somehow came into the knowledge of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. One night, a group of assassins was deployed in front of the home of the Prophet to kill him, as they were informed that Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ is planning to leave Mecca tonight. The Prophet asked his cousin Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ to sleep on his bed. Meanwhile, the Prophet left Mecca along with his companion Abu Bakr رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ.

The next morning, the Quraysh were caught by surprise when they came to know that the Prophet had successfully left Mecca for migration to Medina. They tried to locate him but could not find him. Knowing this fact, the Prophet, along with his companion, took refuge in a cave on Mount Thawr (جَبَل ثَوْر). They hid there for three nights. Finally, they arrived in Medina.

The Medina Period and The Establishment of The Muslim Community

The people of Yathrib were anxiously waiting for the arrival of the Prophet. Each day, they would gather at the entry point of the city, waiting for his arrival. When the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ reached there with his companion Abu Bakr رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ the people of Yathrib welcomed them with profound respect, love and affection. The Prophet decided to stay at the place of Amr Ibn Auf. He stayed there for ten days and nights and established the first ever Islamic place of worship (Mosque), which is known as Masjid Quba (Mosque of Quba).

· The Prophet’s Mosque

Afterward, the Prophet mounted his she-camel and proceeded to his next destination. His she-camel stopped at a place, which was owned by two orphans and was used as a yard for drying dates. The Prophet decided to stay there and planned to build a mosque, which was later on named Masjid An-Nabi (The Prophet’s Mosque). The orphans were asked to sell out this place but they refused to take any price for that. The Prophet then started building the mosque. He himself participated in its construction, physically working there as a laborer.

· The Islamic Calendar

After the successful migration from Mecca and settlement in Medina, the Islamic calendar was initiated after some time. The dates and months of the Islamic calendar were already in practice, which were based on the appearance and movement of the moon. The Hijri Calendar was then started in the year of the migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina.

Meanwhile, the name of the city of Yathrib was also changed to Al-Medina Al-Munawwara (The illuminated city), which later on became “Medina,” which is an Arabic word meaning “City.”

· Ansaar and Muhajireen (The Helpers and Emigrants)

The local Muslims of Medina, who helped the Prophet settle here after migration from Mecca, were given the title “Ansaar,” which means “The Helpers.” The title denotes their role as the helpers of the Prophet, which was instrumental in the settlement of the Prophet in Medina. Those who migrated along with the Prophet from Mecca were given the title “Muhajireen,” which means “the Emigrants. The Prophet established a great bond between both the Ansaar and the Muhajireen for a peaceful co-existence based on the Islamic brotherhood.

· The Charter of Medina

Additionally, there was a third group in the city, the Jews. Hence, an accord was necessary between all the three groups of Medina. The Prophet, therefore, crafted a charter, clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of all the segments of the Medinites. The main clauses of this charter included:

• All the Muslims are jointly responsible for peace and war.
• None of them will have the right to declare war or break the peace with the enemies of his co-religionists.
• Those Jews who join our commonwealth will be protected by Muslims. They will the equal rights as the Muslims have in the state.
• All branches of Jews will form, along with the Muslims, one nation while practicing their religion freely.
• The Jews will assist the Muslims in defending the city against the enemies.

· The Hypocrites

Among the Ansaar, a small group existed who were not converted to Islam from the core of their hearts. They apparently adopted Islam but remained associated with their old faith of Idolatry. They were led by Abdullah Ibn Ubai. They were titled “Munafiqeen,” the Hypocrites. However, after the death of Abdulla Ibn Ubai, this group also vanished.

The Ghazwat (Battles of The Prophet)

Once the first Islamic state was established in Medina and the internal affairs were settled, the Meccans tried to destabilize it. The first such effort resulted in the “War of Badr,” commonly referred to as “Ghazwa e Badr.” Ghazwa, in Islamic history, is a war where the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, himself was a part of the Islamic Army. Muslims, under the leadership of the Prophet, returned triumphant in this first-ever Islamic war despite being far fewer in numbers as compared to the Qurayshites.

Sometimes later, the second war, known as “Ghazwa e Uhad,” was fought between Meccans and Muslims. The Prophet deployed a group of archers to protect the hill on the backside of the battlefield. He ordered them strictly not to leave this place, whatever may be the result of the war. Unfortunately, they disobeyed the orders of the Prophet and Muslims suffered a lot, including injuries to the Prophet as well. This was, in fact, a lesson for Muslims, especially for those who did not follow the instructions of the Prophet.

The third major war is known as the “war of the trench” (Ghazwa e Khandaq). A big army of Quraysh, comprising around ten thousand soldiers, marched towards Medina. The Muslim army was hardly around three thousand at that time. So, the Prophet decided to remain within the City. A huge trench was dug on the weaker spots of the defense line of the city to avert the chances of invasion by the enemy. That’s why it is referred to as “the war of the trench.”

Every time the enemy forces tried to cross the trench, Muslim forces repelled their efforts. After twenty days of siege of Medina, one night, a strong storm and rain occurred, destroying the army of the Quraysh. Most of them, including their leader, Abu Sufyan, fled from the battlefield. The Muslims again emerged victorious.

Mecca Conquest, Life Till He Left The World

Amidst ongoing conflicts with Meccans and the internal problems with the Hypocrites and Jews, the newly established Islamic State in Medina flourished under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. By the sixth year after Hijra, the state of Medina had established strong footings. At this stage, the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ decided to travel to Mecca for Pilgrimage of Ka’aba. He started his journey to Mecca with around 700 companions. They were totally unarmed and their intention was quite clear and positive. But the Quraysh were not willing to allow them the Pilgrimage of Ka’aba.

A delegation was sent to Quraysh by the Prophet to allow them to visit Ka’aba, but the Quraysh army mishandled them. After a hectic debate, both parties reached the famous “Treaty of Hudaibya,” whereby it was decided that Muslims would go back this year without performing Pilgrimage and could do so next year. They would remain in Mecca for three years for this purpose.

According to the Treaty of Hudaibya, the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ along with two hundred Muslims, traveled to Mecca, the next year, which was the seventh year after Hijra. This was a historic event. Quraysh left Mecca for three days to facilitate Muslims to perform the Pilgrimage of Ka’aba. Muslims performed the rituals under the leadership of the Prophet and peacefully left Mecca after completion of three days. On this historic occasion, Khalid Ibn Waleed رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, who was later titled as “Sword of Allah” embraced Islam. Another notable Meccan Amr Ibn Al-A’as رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ also adopted Islam on this occasion.

The Conquest of Mecca – فَتْحُ مَكَّةَ

By the end of the seventh year after Hijra, the Quraysh violated the Treaty of Hudaibya by attacking one of the allies of the Muslims, Bani Khuzaah. They approached the Prophet to protect them from the invasion of Quraysh. Hence, the Prophet decided to end this controversy once and for all. He prepared an army of ten thousand and started marching towards Mecca for the final battle.

The Muslim Army, led by the Prophet, reached Mecca after a journey of eight days from Medina. Mecca, from here, was just a day’s journey away. The Muslim Army stayed here overnight. A leading member of the Quraysh, Abu Sufyan, was sent as a negotiator to the Muslims. He sought permission to meet the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. On that occasion, he accepted Islam and was sent back to Mecca by the Prophet so he could prepare the City for the Conquest by Muslims.

Eventually, the city of Mecca fell to Muslims without any noticeable resistance. The city, which he had to leave a few years back, was now under his control. He entered the city, riding his camel Al-Kaswa while reciting verses 1 to 3 of the Surah Al-Fath:

Translation

1. O Prophet), surely We have granted you a clear victory
2. so that Allah may forgive you your shortcomings, whether earlier or later, and may complete His favors upon you and guide you to the Straight Way,
3. and that Allah may bestow upon you a mighty help.

The city of Mecca was successfully but peacefully conquered by Muslims. The Prophet announced amnesty to all those who did not resist. He, along with his companions, cleared the Holy Ka’aba from all the Idols. Once the House of Allah was cleared from all Idols, the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ addressed the gathering and recited the 13^th verse of Surah Al-Hujurat:

Translation

Human beings, We created you all from a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes so that you may know one another. Verily the noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the most God-fearing of you. Surely Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware.

The conquest of Mecca was followed by the battle of Hunain and some other small wars. The tribes of Hawazin and Thakif refused to accept the dominance of Islam and set to a war near Hunain, some nine miles away from Mecca. After an intense battle, the Hawazin and Thakif were defeated, and all their people and families were captured by the Muslim forces.

In the year 9 AH (After Hijra), the rulers of the nearby territories submitted themselves to the Prophet by sending delegations and accepting the supremacy of the Islamic Rule. Soon after the conquest of Mecca, the people of Ta’if also accepted Islam. This was a historic event, as Ta’if was the city where the Prophet had a difficult time when he stayed there for around one month in an effort to invite them to the true faith of Islam.

By the end of the year 9 AH, almost the entire population of Mecca had adopted Islam. In the next year, 10 AH, more Arabian territories submitted to the Prophet by sending delegations to Mecca. At this point, the Prophet sent his companions to these communities to teach them Islamic norms and rituals.

Hajjat Al-Wida – حَجَّة الوَداع And The Last Sermon

In the year 10 AH, the Prophet along with some 40,000 followers, traveled to Mecca for Hajj (Pilgrimage). This was his first and the last Pilgrimage, hence referred to as Hajjat al-Wida (the last Hajj).

He performed the Hajj along with his companions, performing the rituals. The entire process of Hajj and its rituals, as performed by the Prophet on that occasion, was set as the procedure of performing Hajj, which is still followed by Muslims every year. Since then, Hajj has become one of the five pillars of Islam, which every Muslim has to perform once in a lifetime, provided he/she is fit to do so physically as well as financially.

On this occasion, the Prophet delivered the historic sermon, commonly known as the “Last Sermon). He spelled out the basic teachings of Islam in this sermon and advised the Muslims to follow the Quran and Sunnah to live a true Muslim life. At the end of his sermon, he said that I have accomplished my mission and have delivered the Message of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَىٰ to mankind.

The Death of The Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ

After returning from the Hajj, the Prophet spent his time in Medina, organizing and managing the administrative affairs of the new territories, and entered into the Islamic Community. New offices were established and the required officials were deployed to manage these affairs.

In the year 11 AH, the Prophet fell ill. He left this world on the 12^th of Rabi al-Awwal, 11 AH (8 June 632 CE).

The Caliphate

The event of the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ was so shocking for the Muslims that most of them couldn’t believe it. Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was also among them. At this moment, Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ came forward with a piece of wisdom. Addressing the people, he said, if you were worshiping Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, then be informed that he has expired but if you were worshiping Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَىٰ, He is ever-living and will never die. Then he recited the 144^th verse of Surah Al-e-Imran:

Translation

Muhammad is no more than a Messenger, and Messengers have passed away before him. If, then, he were to die or be slain will you turn about on your heels? Whoever turns about on his heels can in no way harm Allah. As for the grateful ones, Allah will soon reward them.

Listening to this speech and the Quranic verse, all of them, including Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ accepted the reality that the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ had left this world.

The next but very important issue was the selection of the successor to the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. This was a sensitive issue. It was vital for the unity of the Islamic Nation as well as for the continuation of Islam as a universal religion. After a little debate, finally, Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was elected as the leader and the first Caliph of the Muslim State. He adopted the title “خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ” (the successor of the Messenger of Allah), which was later on popularly spelled as “Caliph or خَلِيفةُ”.  This was the start of the Caliphate in the Muslim world. The Caliphate (ٱلْخِلَافَةُ) can be translated as “State” or, in other words, a “form of Government,” which was adopted by the Muslims after the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. The first four Caliphs are collectively referred to as the “Rashidun Caliphs.”

The Rashidun Caliphs

The system of Caliphate started right after the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, which is specifically referred to as “Rashidun Caliphate” (ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ). The term Rashidun Caliphate is, however, restricted to only the first four Caliphs in Islam.

The Arabic word Rashidun is the plural form of the word “Rashid” (راشد), which means “the one who is rightly guided.” The term Rashidun Caliphs (الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ) is specifically used for the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ, which represents that all of them were “Rightly Guided”. They were the close companions of the Prophet and were trained under his direct mentorship; hence were highly esteemed amongst the Muslim community. They enjoyed the highest level of respect among the Muslim community and were the Role Models for the nation, both as a person and as a religious leader. More importantly, all of them were among those who embraced Islam in its early days. They were also among those ten Companions of the Prophet who were specifically guaranteed a place in paradise.

The Rashidun Caliphate lasted for around 30 years, starting from 632 CE, with the Caliphate of Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ and ending with the death of Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ in 661 CE.

· Caliph Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ

Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was elected as the first leader of the Muslim State after the death of the Prophet in 632 CE (11 AH). His Caliphate lasted for only two years. However, it had been an eventful period in the history of Islam. He had to face multiple challenges during this short period. His immediate challenges included, the emergence of false prophethood, discontinuation of payment of Zakat by some of the tribes, and apostasy by various Arabian tribes.

He launched military campaigns against all disaffiliates and defeated them. By the year 633 CE (end of 11 AH), the entire Arabian Peninsula was united under the Caliphate of Medina. Next year he sent the Islamic troops to Iraq and Syria and successfully included them in Islamic State.

The Caliph Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ died in August 634 CE.

· Caliph Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ

While on his death bed, Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ appointed Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ as the next Caliph. His Caliphate lasted for 10 years till his assassination in the year 644. After taking over as the Caliph, Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ adopted the title “Ameer Ul Momineen” (The leader of the Momineen or Believers). All the next Caliphs also used this title for their caliphates.

The era of the Caliph Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ is characterized by the consolidation and expansion of the Muslim State. He also introduced various reforms in the system of governance. He introduced the concept of Governors (Amir) and Financial Officers (Amil) to make governance more effective. The army was also brought under the control of the central government.

After a successful tenure of 10 years as Caliph, he was assassinated in 644 CE when he was leading the morning prayers.

· Caliph Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ

The Caliphate of Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ lasted for 12 years, the longest among all the Rashidun Caliphs. He assumed the charge of Caliph in 644 CE. He was appointed by a six-member committee, nominated by Caliph Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, while he was on his deathbed.

Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ belonged to the Umayyad, a branch of Quraysh tribe. Expansion of the Muslim State continued during his era. Islamic forces conquered North Africa, and parts of the European territories, such as Sicily and Cyprus, and even reached the lower Indus Valley.

The most significant achievement of the Caliph Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was the compilation of the Quran in the shape of a Book.

He was assassinated in 656 CE.

· Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ

After the assassination of Caliph Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was elected Caliph by the people of Medina. He then shifted the Capital from Medina to Kufa, a city in Iraq.

By the time Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ assumed the charge as Caliph, the overall law and order situation of the Islamic State was quite vulnerable. The immediate challenge faced him was the strong demand from the notables of the community to take revenge for the assassination of Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ. An army led by the widow of the Prophet Aiysha رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا, along with Talha and Zubayr رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمَا reached Basra. The Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ also reached there with his army. It is believed that neither Ali nor Talha and Zubayr رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمْ wanted to indulge in fighting. But somehow, the famous “Battle of the Camel” did break out. This was the first-ever battle between the two Muslim groups, which resulted in the death of Talha and Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ. Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, sent Aiysha رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهَا back to Medina, safely. Overall, it was a period of internal conflicts which badly affected the Islamic state.

The Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ was eventually assassinated in the year 661 CE. It was also the end of the Rashidun Caliphate.

The Umayyad Caliphate

With the assassination of the Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, the era of the first Caliphate, commonly known as Rashidun Caliphate, ended and the second Islamic Caliphate, known as Umayyad Caliphate (ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة) emerged. This was established by the Umayyad Dynasty, with Mu’awiya being the first Caliph. The third Rashidun Caliph Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ also belonged to the Umayyad family. The conflict between the fourth Rashidun Caliph Ali رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ and the Umayyad Dynasty arose after the assassination of Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ. They demanded revenge for his assassination, which slowly and gradually turned out in a huge conflict.

Mu’awiya was the son of Abu Sufyan. Both of them were among the late converts, contrary to the earlier Caliphs, who were close associates of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ and had entered Islam in its initial days. However, Mu’awiya was appointed Deputy Commander of the forces sent by Caliph Abu Bakar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ to Syria. During the era of Caliph Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, he was further elevated to higher ranks. Then, during the caliphate of Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ, he became Governor of Syria. Hence, he had a strong hold and support in Syria by the time he founded the great empire of the Umayyad Caliphate.

The Umayyad Caliphate lasted for around 89 years (661 CE to 750 CE). Unlike the Rashidun Caliphate, they followed the hereditary form of government instead of selecting the Caliph on merit. However, most of the period of the Umayyad Caliphate remained peaceful and expansion of the Islamic state was also at its highest level. The conquests continued, with more and more areas coming under the Islamic state. Areas such as Tunisia, Algeria, Sind, Northwest Africa, and Central Asia were included in the Caliphate. At their peak, the Umayyad Caliphate was one of the biggest empires in the history of the world, with an area of around 11,100,000 square kilometers ruled by the Umayyads.

Mu’awiya made Damascus the Capital of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Capital was later on shifted to Haran in the last days of the Umayyad Caliphate in the year 744 CE.

· Ethnic and Cultural Structure of the Umayyad Caliphate

As a result of the inclusion of non-Arab areas in the Islamic Caliphate, the overall composition of the society turned multicultural and multiethnic. Christians and Jews, collectively, formed a major portion of the total population of the Caliphate. Hence, the Umayyads were quite generous and realistic. They allowed them to practice their religious norms freely within the framework of the Islamic state. A sort of religious tax, namely Jizya, was imposed on the non-Muslim population while guaranteeing their safety and security under Islamic rule. Parallel to that, Muslims were required to pay Zakat, which was used for the welfare of the poor segment of the Muslim population.

On the other hand, Christians were also appointed to important positions during the earlier days of the Umayyad Caliphate, especially in Syria. This policy gave huge acceptance and popularity to the first Umayyad Caliph, Mu’awiya, specifically in Syria, which was already his power base since his Governorship of Syria.

· Introduction of Hereditary Form of Government

The year 676 was a turning point in the history of the Islamic Caliphate. Contrary to the norms of the earlier Caliphs, Mu’awiya nominated his son Yazid, as his successor. This was against the conventional method of selection of a Caliph; hence was opposed by the majority of the Quraysh and the people of Iraq. It practically turned the Caliphate into Kingship. However, despite all the opposition, Yazid took over the charge of Caliph after the death of his father Mu’awiya in 680 CE.

· Umayyad Caliphs

During the 89 years long the Umayyad Caliphate, some 14 Caliphs ruled the Islamic State in the following sequence:

1. Mu’awiya I Ibn Abu Sufyan – 661 to 680 CE
2. Yazid I Ibn Mu’awiyah – 680 to 683 CE
3. Mu’awiya II Ibn Yazid – 683 to 684 CE
4. Marwan I Ibn Al-Hakam – 684 to 685 CE
5. Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan – 685 to 705 CE
6. Al-Walid I Ibn Abd Al-Malik – 705 to 715 CE
7. Sulaiman Ibn Abd Al-Malik – 715 to 717 CE
8. Umar Ibn Abd al-Aziz – 717 to 720 CE
9. Yazid II Ibn Abd Al-Malik – 720 to 724 CE
10. Hisham Ibn Abd Al-Malik – 724 to 743 CE
11. al-Walid II Ibn Yazid – 743 to 744 CE
12. Yazid III Ibn Al-Walid – For six months in 744 CE
13. Ibrahim Ibn Al-Walid – For two months in 744 CE
14. Marwan II Ibn Muhammad – 744 to 750 CE

The Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate (الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة), also historically known as the Abbasid Empire, was the third Caliphate in the history of Islam. It started in the year 750 CE and ended in 1517 CE. So, it lasted for around 764 years, with a gap of three years from 1258 to 1261 CE. In the year 1258 CE, Mongols toppled the Abbasid Caliphate, but they regained power in the year 1261 CE.

In 750 CE, the famous Abbasid Revolution happened when they overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. It originated from the area known as Khurasan. Khurasan comprises the Eastern part of the Iranian Plateau and part of Central Asia.

The Abbasid Caliphate was founded by the descendants of the youngest uncle of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ, Abbas Ibn Abdul Muttalib; hence they assumed the name “Abbasids.” The first ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate was Abu Al-Abbas, popularly known as “As-Saffah”

· Capitals of the Abbasid Caliphate

The Capital of the Abbasid Caliphate kept on rotating as under:

• From 750 to 762 CE, Kufa
• From 762 to 836 CE, Baghdad
• From 836 to 892 CE, Samarra
• From 892 to 1258 CE, Baghdad
• From 1261 to 1517 CE, Cairo
• From 1258 to 1261 CE, Mongols remained in power, which Abbasids regained in 1261.

· The Golden Age of Islam

The Golden Age of Islam is an era highlighted by Cultural, Scientific, and Economic Development. Historically, it refers to the Abbasid regime during the 8^th to 13^th Century CE, with the Caliphate of Abbasi Caliph Harun Ur Rashid being the starting point. He established a huge Library in Baghdad, commonly referred to as the “House of Wisdom.” Scholars from the whole Islamic World came to Baghdad during that era. They translated scientific knowledge and research work from all parts of the world into Arabic and Persian.

The Baghdad Library was eventually destroyed by the Mongols during their siege of Baghdad in 1258 CE. However, science and economics, as well as other forms of knowledge, were at the highest level in Baghdad as compared to other parts of the world at that time.

· Abbasid Caliphate – Overview

Overall, the entire period of the Abbasid Caliphate has been a peaceful and prosperous time for the Muslim Community. It was an era of fast development in Arts, Culture, Science, Architecture, Economics, and various other fields of knowledge.

However, gradually, the political role of the Abbasid Caliphs started diminishing. But they still enjoyed a symbolic role of religious leadership in most parts of their Caliphate. In this context, the Golden Era of the Abbasid Caliphate is believed to be from 775 to 860 CE, when they were politically and religiously in full command, under the leadership of Caliphs like Harun Ur Rashid, Al-Mansur and Al-Mamun.

The concept of Ministries (Viziers, also known as Wazirs) was initially introduced during these Caliphs. Harun Ur Rashid, in particular, delegated much of the administrative powers to these Ministers, who were mostly from Iran, referred to as Bermakids. The influence of the Bermakid Ministers gradually increased, reducing the political role of the Abbasid Caliphs to symbolic religious leaders.

· The Abbasid Caliphs

The Abbasid Caliphate can be bifurcated into two parts: the Baghdad Caliphate from 750 to 1258 and the Cairo Caliphate from 1261 to 1517. There have been around 37 Caliphs in the first phase, starting with As-Saffah and ending with Al-Mustasim Billah. This was the end of the Baghdad Caliphate when Mongols toppled their rule.

Al-Mustanar Billah was the first Caliph in the Cairo phase of the Abbasid Caliphate, who regained power in 1261 CE. The Cairo Caliphate lasted till 1517 CE, with the last Caliph being Al-Mutawakkil. In total, there were 17 Abbasid Caliphs who ruled from Cairo.

The Abbasid Caliphate was eventually ended when the Ottoman Empire came into power in 1517 CE.

Islamic Expansion And Empires

The Message of Islam was initially disseminated to the local Quraysh tribe of Mecca in the early days of the Prophethood of Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. It was a slow process in the early stages but after the migration of the Prophet to Medina, it started spreading at a greater pace, which resulted in the formation of the first Islamic State, with Medina being its headquarters.

By the year 632 CE, when the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ left this world, the entire Arabian Peninsula had already come under the Islamic Rule. After that, the era of the Rashidun Caliphate lasted for around 30 years, during which the Islamic State expanded rapidly. At its peak, an area of around 6,400,000 square kilometers came under Islamic rule. It comprised the entire Arabian Peninsula, West Asia, and Northeast Africa. A major part of the Byzantine Empire and the entire Sassanian Empire was conquered by the Islamic forces during the era of the Rashidun Caliphate.

The next phase of expansion came under the Umayyad Caliphate, during their 89 years long rule. Islamic state expanded up to 11,100,000 square kilometers. The Islamic Rule expanded to the Indus River in the East, whereas in the West, it reached the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Portugal, Gibraltar, Spain, and a part of France).

Expansion Into Africa, Asia, And Europe

The expansion of Islam or more precisely, the Islamic Rule started in the very early years of Islam, especially after the death of the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. The earlier Islamic conquests were aimed at the inclusion of more areas in the Islamic State. By the end of the first century, Muslim rule expanded in the three adjacent continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe.

· Expansion into Asia

The expansion of Islam into Asia was the first major event in the Islamic conquests. Arabian Peninsula, being geographically located in the Asian Continent, was in fact the first Asian region, coming under the influence of Islam. The real expansion into other parts of the Asian Continent started right in the very initial days of the Rashidun Caliphate. Later on, in the era of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, Islam spread in the Middle East and subsequently reached up to the Indus River civilization, in Asia. Fatimids, Mamluks, Seljuks, and Ayyubids, in the later phase, remained the most influential dynasties in these areas, as well as in parts of the European Continent.

In the 8^th Century CE, Islam reached the Central Asian region and established as a main political and religious force in these areas. Later on, powerful Muslim dynasties such as the Timurids and Mughals emerged from Central Asia.

By the 13^th Century CE, Islamic Rule was expanded deep into the Indian Sub-continent. It was influenced by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids, who invaded the Indian Sub-Continent, through Afghanistan. Resultantly, the most powerful Sultanate in Delhi was established, commonly referred to as the Delhi Sultanate. It ruled the Indian Sub-Continent for around three centuries. Just by that time, the Anatolian region was conquered by the Turkish Dynasties, like the Sultanate of Rum. Anatolia, at that time, was a part of the Byzantine Empire.

Meanwhile, the Muslim Expansion in the Middle East and parts of Africa was already established during the era of the Abbasids. During that time, Baghdad remained the center of Arts, literature, science, and architecture. It was also the center of knowledge, with the establishment of the House of Wisdom. However, Muslim Rule in the areas, from Egypt to Persia, saw a decline in the 13^th Century CE, when the Mongols invaded Baghdad. The Muslims regained power after a gap of three years, in 1261 CE.

The expansion of Islam in Asia influenced these areas, economically as well as culturally. Islam spread in most parts of Asia through the invading Muslim forces but in some parts of Asia, such as in Indonesia, Islam reached through the Muslim traders.

· Expansion into Africa

The Continent of Africa was the first territory outside the Arab world. It happened in the very early days of Islam when Muslims were facing persecution by the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. It was the year 614 CE when the Prophet Muhammad صَلَّى ٱللَّٰهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ instructed some of his companions to migrate to the neighboring Abyssinian state. This event is historically known as the first migration (hijra) in Islam. More than one hundred Muslims migrated there.

Since then, Islam gradually expanded in other parts of the African Continent. At present, around 33% of the total Muslim population of the entire world lives in Africa.

After the first migration, the actual conquest of Africa started during the era of the second Rashidun Caliph Umar رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ in the year 641 CE. Egypt was the first to be included in the Islamic regime, followed by Libya in 642 CE. The third Rashidun Caliph Uthman رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ conquered the present day’s Tunisia in the year 647 CE. The conquest of Africa continued during the reign of the Umayyads. By 680 CE, Algeria also fell to Islamic forces. Morocco was the next to come under the reign of Umayyads in 681 CE.

In the 9^th Century CE, the Somali Peninsula, more commonly known as the Horn of Africa, was also included in the Islamic State. By the 10^th Century CE, Islam expanded up to West Africa through Almoravids, alongside the Senegal River. By that time, most of the local rulers and kings embraced Islam, which also helped spread Islam in these areas. Another factor in the spread of Islam in the African continent was preaching as well as trading. Gradually, the Message of Islam reached most parts of the African continent, deeper up to Malawi, Congo, and Mozambique.

Eventually, Islam became the second largest religion in Africa, after Christianity.

· Expansion into Europe

The expansion of Islam into Europe started in the 7^th Century CE and consolidated and further expanded during the period from the 8^th to the 10^th Century CE. In the earlier days of Islam, the Caucasian region was conquered by the Muslim forces. Later on, they conquered Hispania during the Umayyad era. Present-day countries like Spain, Portugal, Malta, and Sicily remained under the political control of Islamic reign till the end of the 15^th Century CE. After the Muslim conquest, Hispania was named as “Al-Andalus.  Almost all of the Muslim population was either converted to Christianity or were forcefully expelled from the region by the end of the 15^th Century CE.

The Ottomans further invaded the Balkan territories (Southeastern Europe). They consolidated Islamic expansion by conquering large areas of the Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, as well as parts of the Byzantine Empire. All these areas came under the Islamic Rule (Ottomans) in the 14^th to 15^th Centuries CE.  During the Medieval period (also referred to as the Middle Ages), Eastern Europe also came under Islamic Rule. It largely happened through the Islamization of the Turkish Ethnic segments, like Tatars, Cumans, and Volga Bulgars, as a result of Mongolian conquests in the Eurasian region. These Muslim populations are historically known as “Tatars” and “Turks”.

As of today, Islam is the second largest religion in Europe, after Christianity. The majority of the Muslim population in Western Europe, historically, are immigrants, whereas Indigenous European Muslim communities have existed for centuries, resulting from the initial Muslim expansions in the Balkans, Crimea, Caucasia, and Volga regions. At present, more than 90% of the population of Kosovo is Muslim, whereas Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina have around 55% of Muslim population. The majority of these Muslim communities are the descendants of the earlier converts, who accepted Islam during the initial Muslim expansion into these areas.

The Role of Islamic Empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal)

Islamic Empires of the early and mid-ages played a vital role in the expansion of Islam in different parts of the world, such as Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Indian Sub-Continent. The most prominent and strong empires include the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. These three empires are collectively referred to as “Gunpowder Empires” or, more specifically, “Islamic Gunpowder Empires.” The name was given to these Empires, as they were the first to use Gunpowder Weapons in the history of Islam.

The period of these three Gunpowder Empires is characterized by the social, political, economic, and military dominance of Islam. This was the era when Islam spread towards the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, collectively referred to as the “Muslim World.”

· The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, sometimes mentioned as the “Turkish Empire,” ruled North Africa, Southeast Europe, and West Asia. Established in 1299 CE by its founder Osman, this empire remained in power for more than 600 years. Osman was a Turkoman tribal leader.  The name “Ottoman Empire” refers to the name of Osman (the Turkish version of the Arabic name Uthman). The rulers of the Ottoman Empire assumed the title “Sultan.”

Initially, the Ottoman Empire was founded in Northwestern Anatolia. Later on, the Empire was expanded to the entire Anatolia by his successors. Then by the middle of the 14^th Century, the empire further expanded into the Balkans. In 1453 CE, the then Sultan Mehmed conquered the Capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople (which was later named Istanbul). With this, the Ottomans gained the status of a strong and powerful empire.

Sultan Suleiman, more commonly known as “Suleiman the Magnificent,” ruled the empire for around 46 years. This is referred to as the best part of the Ottoman Empire. At its peak, the Ottomans ruled an area of around 5,200,000 square kilometers. The empire was eventually abolished in 1922, followed by the establishment of the “Republic of Turkey” in 1923. The Caliphate era finally ended in 1924.

The role of Ottomans in Islamic history is quite remarkable. Once in power, the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire also assumed the religious role of Caliphs. Side by side with their political role, they would also act as the religious leaders of the Muslims, in the position of Caliph. Hence the Ottoman Caliphate assumed the religious leadership for the Muslim World. On the other hand, religious affairs were delegated to “Sheykhulislam”, which was the highest religious authority after the Caliph.

Apart from their religious role, the Ottomans provided political stability to the Muslim World. The Sultans had the ultimate authority on the formation of Rules and Regulations, known as “Kanun” (Turkish for Law).

The minorities were also given a special status in the Ottoman regime. The Jews and Christians were the main minority segment, who would pay the religious tax, known as Jiziya, and the State was responsible for their protection under the Islamic Rule.

The political stability and strong military power helped economic development. Similarly, science, architecture, and literature also flourished in their regime. Overall, the era of the Ottomans was a prosperous and developing time for the Muslim World.

· The Safavids

The Safavids were one of the Gunpowder Empires who ruled Iran from 1501 to 1736 CE. The founder of this empire was Shah Ismail I, who established the “Twelver Shia” regime in Persia. The rulers of the Safavid empire assumed the title “Shahanshah of Iran.” They promoted the Twelver Shia’ism in Iran, which at the time of the establishment of this Empire was dominated by the Sunnis.

Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid empire, managed to forcefully convert the Sunnis and minorities, such as Jews and Christians, to Shia’ism. From 1501 to 1502, Shah Ismail conquered Tabriz (Iran), Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. By the end of 1510 CE, he captured the entire Khorasan region as well as Herat (Afghanistan) and launched a concerted campaign to convert the entire population to Shai’ism. His policy for Sunnis, especially the Scholars, was to choose between conversion, death, or exile. Side by side, he also managed to bring the Shia Scholars from other regions to Iran.

Eventually, Iran became a Shia-dominated country. This policy led to hostilities within the country with Sunnis and with the neighboring Ottoman Empire, who were predominantly Sunnis. It is believed that this campaign of forced conversion proved to be a turning point in the history of Islam by creating a clear division between the Sunni and Shia Islam. At the same time, the Safavid campaign also resulted in a conflicting division within Shia Islam. Zaydism and Ismailism, who previously had their dominated the Shia Islam in their times, were also separated from the Twelver Shia’ism. Eventually, the Safavids achieved the target of the creation of a Shia Empire in Iran and Azerbaijan.

Despite all these religious and sectarian issues, the era of Safavids had been a period of strong and central form of Government Administration. Being geographically situated on the ancient trade routes, they managed to get the benefits of their position and gradually become rich. They developed strong trade ties with Europe, Central Asia, and India.

The Safavids turned their territory into a huge cultural civilization, marked by great advancement in arts and architecture, as well as other fields. In fact, the Safavids were artistic-minded. The founder of the Safavid Empire, Shah Ismail, was a poet, whereas another ruler, namely Shah Tahmasp, was a painter. Hence the arts and culture flourished in the era of the Safavid Empire. The Architecture of that era is still dominant in the present day’s Iran.

Isfahan was once the Capital of Shah Abbas. During his regime, Isfahan was so developed that the Persians refer to it as “the Half of the World”, having mosques, libraries, and parks, as well as Public Baths.

The Safavid Iran was marked by prosperity and cultural and literary development.

· The Mughals

The Mughal Empire was founded by Zaheer Ud Din Babar, from the Timurid dynasty. He invaded the Indian Sub-Continent in 1526 CE and defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi in the historical battle, commonly referred to as the ‘First Battle of Panipat”, Panipat being the territory where this battle was fought. The Mughal Empire is also included in the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires, along with the Ottomans and Safavids.

The Mughals ruled the Indian Sub-Continent from 1526 to 1858 CE. The Mughal Empire was eventually abolished by the British forces in the “Battle of Independence” of 1857. After the defeat in this war, the Mughal Empire formally ended in October 1858, when the last emperor of the Mughal dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar was de-throned and sent into exile to Burma.

The Mughal Empire saw its peak in the era of the last effective Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb when the Mughal Empire was spread over an area of around 4,000,000 square kilometers.

The highlight of the Mughal Empire is considered to be the era of Emperor Akbar, who ruled India for the longest period among all the Mughal Emperors. It was an era of religious harmony, based on the principles of peaceful co-existence. He gave key administrative and military posts to the members of the Hindu Community. He also launched a controversial religion, known as Deen-e-Akbari, which did not get acceptance from the majority of the population of India. Other Mughal Emperors were pro-Islamic in their behavior and attitude but at the same time maintained good and caring relations with the local Hindu Community.

The impact of Mughal culture and architecture is everlasting and can be seen even in the present-day Indian Sub-Continent. The third Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan, is known for his interest in architecture. So many masterpiece buildings were built during the Mughal Empire, especially during the period of Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal being the most famous among them.

Apart from architecture, Mughal Emperors also made formidable contributions in other fields such as economy, trade, culture, and literature. Their military might was also exemplary in that era.

Overall, the Mughal era was a peaceful and prosperous period in the history of India and Pakistan. This was the period when Islam spread across the Indian Sub-Continent